those businesses that maintained patterns of segregation or discriminated in their
workforce. Legality, morality, and mutual self-interest are all strategies in the
struggle for inclusion.
9 Institutions and The Problem
of Exclusion
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
No serious empirical theory of politics can work on the assumption that what
democratic liberals take as normatively desirable is what will always occur. That
recognition is inherent in the hypothesis of the counter-attack. What degree of
exclusion is possible and/or probable? There is prevention of entry, where the elite
can say ‘‘you may not come in.’’ In principle there can be some kind of conditional
admission, with restrictions as to what kind of life can be lived, work be done, and
so forth. Exclusion is, by deWnition, unseemly for political scientists who study
‘‘democracy,’’ ‘‘liberalism,’’ or ‘‘constitutionalism.’’ Nonetheless, students of politi-
cal science cannot escape the question of exclusion as an ever-present possibility.
Expulsion, too, is an ever-present possibility. Extermination is one of the forms
of expulsion, and is so utterly repellent that we have no way of comprehending it.
The ultimate objects may be people who have already been incorporated, and now
are excluded. Extermination has been invoked verbally, and sometimes in actual
practice, in the United States and in Australia, against the Native Americans and
the Aborigines respectively. The folklore that ‘‘the only good Indian is a dead
Indian’’ was not for the movies only, but was sometimes expressed in tactics of
extermination.
Peter J. G. Pulzer makes the case that anti-Semitism reached its most virulent
intensity after a great deal of emancipation had taken place for Jews. German Jews
were a highly cultivated population. In the twentieth century, Jews had come far
from old restrictions, to the point that Walther Rathenau was Foreign Minister at
his assassination in 1922.
Both the Holocaust and the massive killings that took place in eastern Africa in
1994 wouldWt the pattern of expulsion via extermination. So would the eVorts at
‘‘ethnic cleansing’’ in the Balkans. In parallel, the savage interethnic slaughter in
Rwanda by some Hutu factions against Tutsis was one of killings amongst groups,
the members of which were intermarried with each other.
In general terms, it is possible to identify the most signiWcant criteria of
exclusion. Those to be excluded from ‘‘the people’’ are those who are considered
exclusion, inclusion, and political institutions 183