that “the principles on which present patterns of cooperation are
based show insufficient sensitivity to the interests of disadvantaged
people in the Third World,” but at the same time he argues that “on
consequentialist grounds,...contemporary international economic
regimes may be superior to politically feasible alternatives.”^95 Finally,
the neoMarxist Robert Cox asserts, far more critically, that the
“inter-civilizational world” he advocates should be based on “mutual
support in promoting social equity,” and “a consensual understanding
of basic human rights.”^96 In terms of left and right, the political posi-
tions of these authors and the schools they represent are plain to see.
Constructivism, a more recent theory, is harder to pin down along
the left–right continuum, and, in principle, constructivists could
position themselves anywhere. In reality, however, constructivism
developed as an extension of liberalism that is open to critical theory.
One would therefore be justified in placing this approach at the
center-left of the political spectrum. Wendt, for one, certainly regards
as desirable the transformation of the “Lockean” culture that now
dominates the international scene into a “Kantian” culture founded
on friendship, solidarity, and a common identity.^97 Wendt’s “thin”
constructivism, it must nonetheless be mentioned, is generally seen as
more conservative than the “thick” version adopted by some of his
constructivist colleagues.
Further nuances inherent in each of the main images of inter-
national politics could also be transposed on to a left–right scale. Like
political parties, all schools have their conservative and progressive
wings. This said, the left–right spectrum does more than just set in
order the standard typologies of international relations theories. It can
also serve to contextualize the opposition between rationalists and
constructivists, which is at the core of Wendt’s work, and which
many now see as “the main axis of debate in the field of international
relations.”^98 It is worth noting in this connection that in proposing
(^95) Robert O. Keohane,After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World
96 Political Economy, second edition, Princeton University Press, 2005, p. 256.
Robert W. Cox (with Michael G. Schechter),The Political Economy of a Plural
World: Critical Reflections on Power, Morals and Civilization, London,
97 Routledge, 2002, p. 185.
Wendt,Social Theory of International Politics, pp. 305–11.
(^98) James Fearon and Alexander Wendt, “Rationalism v. Constructivism: A
Skeptical View,” in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse, and Beth A. Simmons
(eds.),Handbook of International Relations, London, Sage, 2002, p. 52.
226 Left and Right in Global Politics