The Roots of the Scientific Revolution 41
They also contributed a great deal in mathematics and logic
including algebra. The term algorithm is a latinization of Al-Khwarizmi
the great algebraist whose book title Kitab al-Jabr gave rise to the term
algebra. Arab mathematicians transmitted the Hindu place number
system to Europe.
Arabic astronomical observations were more accurate than those
previously made because of improvements in their astronomical
instruments. They increased the size of the armillary sphere and astrolabe
and thus reduced the errors of observation. They were able to calculate
the radius of the earth and the meridian degree with only 1 percent error,
by A.D. 820. In the meantime, Europe still slumbered under the illusion
that the earth was flat. They foreshadowed the work of Copernicus
introducing the notion of the daily rotation of the Earth.
They also made significant contributions in optics, geology, zoology
and physics. They were excellent botanists, which contributed to their
expertise in agricultural practices.
Although the Arabs made vital contributions, they fell short of
the development of modern science. “They introduced the objective
experiment, a decided improvement over the hazy speculations of the
Greeks. Accurate in the observation of phenomena and diligent in the
accumulation of facts, the Arabs nevertheless found it difficult to project
proper hypotheses and draw truly scientific conclusions” (Hitti 1964,
p. 147). They did, however, lay the foundations for modern science,
which they transmitted to Europe.
Medieval European Science
The development of modern science between the 13th and 17th centuries
in Europe occurred in two stages. During the first stage there was a
renewal of interest in ancient Greek learning. The philosophy of Aristotle
once again dominated the thinking of the time. His authority, however,
was partly neutralized by the Church. As a result two new theories
arose based on a reinterpretation of the existing data rather than new
experimental results. One was the impetus theory of motion and the
other, more revolutionary in nature, was the Copernican heliocentric
theory of the universe. The second phase of the scientific revolution was
brought about as a result of the development of experimental technique.
Before this period physicists had based their generalizations on
observations of nature. However, beginning with Galileo physicists