82 al-Azhar Mosque
city. He acted with mercy in most of these victories,
enforcing his reputation among the Christians. During the
Third Crusade and fighting against RICHARDI LIONHEART,
he had much less success, losing the major city of ACRE
back to the crusaders and a major fleet, all despite a clear
superiority in troops and resources. He eventually reached
an agreement in September 1192 with the crusaders, giv-
ing them access to Jerusalem. He died a few months later
on March 4, 1193, but his now divided realm did manage
to survive and even prosper in Egypt, first under his sons
and then under his brother, al-Adil (r. 1200–18), and his
nephew, al-Malik al-Kamil I (r. 1218–38). Syria soon split
into small family emirates or city-states in ALEPPO,
Hamah, Hims, DAMASCUS, Baalbek, and Transjordan. War-
fare with the crusaders was intermittent, and diplomatic
resolutions of conflicts were often achieved. There
was always considerable tension between Cairo and
Damascus, however, and sometimes warfare. The family
remained in control of Egypt until they were overthrown
by the MAMLUKSin 1250. The petty states in Syria lasted
until they were crushed by the MONGOLSin 1260.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND CHARACTERISTICSThe era of Saladin and his successors was marked by the
establishment of Italian trading centers on the coast.
Their military success provided an opportunity for eco-
nomic life to revive and flourish. Syria and its ports and
cities reached a new level of prosperity. That was not the
case in Egypt, which suffered economically under this
dynasty. The Ayyubid rulers patronized culture and archi-
tecture, especially military fortification, including the
famous citadel of Cairo and the defenses of Aleppo. They
created a new land system based on the grant of rights
over land in return for military service. They were cham-
pions of Sunni orthodoxy against the sects that had
gained ground in the previous era, but their efforts to
stamp out heterodoxy were not completely successful.
The ISMAILISkept their strongholds in the mountains,
and their secret organization, the ASSASSINS, had some
political importance. The Ayyubids were zealous Sunni
Muslims, seeking to convert Muslim Shiites and Chris-
tians. They introduced into Egypt and Jerusalem the
MADRASA,an academy or school of religious study, as
intellectual and theological centers against the Shiia and
sectarian rivals.
See alsoFREDERICKII.
Further reading:Ahmad ibn ‘Ali Maqrizi, (1364–
1442), A History of the Ayyubid Sultans of Egypt,trans. R.
J. C. Broadhurst (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980); Neil
D. MacKenzie, Ayyubid Cairo: A Topographical Study
(Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1992);
Claude Cahen, “Ayyu ̄ bids,” Encyclopedia of Islam,
1.796–807; Robert Irwin, The Middle East in the Middle
Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382(London:
Croom Helm, 1986).al-Azhar Mosque SeeCAIRO.Azores The Azores are a chain of nine initially unin-
habited volcanic islands near the mid–Atlantic Ocean dis-
covered by ships sent by Prince HENRY THENAVIGATORin- They became a fundamental base for Portuguese
trade and commerce in the 15th century. The three most
important islands are Santa Maria, San Miguel, and Ter-
ceira. They served as supply and trading centers for ships
returning from Portuguese excursions to Africa and the
later Spanish explorations to the Americas. Bearing
northwest and using prevailing winds on the return voy-
age from Africa, sailors heading back to Europe stopped
at the Azores for supplies of fresh water and foodstuffs.
Portuguese nobles and traders moved to the islands to
profit from this transient trade. Later, the economy was
built around sugar production. Besides providing a place
of refuge and source of supplies, the discovery of the
Azores furnished important navigational information for
the Atlantic Ocean, which soon made possible the voy-
ages of COLUMBUSand others to the Western Hemisphere.
Further reading:James H. Guill, A History of the
Azores Islands(Tulare, Calif.: Golden Shield Publications,
Golden Shield International, 1993); Francis Millet
Rogers, Atlantic Islanders of the Azores and Madeiras
(North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House,
1979).