B

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Babylonian Captivity SeeAVIGNON AND THE
AVIGNONESE PAPACY.

Bacon, Roger (ca. 1213–1294)English philosopher, often
considered a forerunner of modern science
Little is known about the details of Roger Bacon’s life or
about the chronology and motivation of his major works,
the Opus majus,the Opus minus,and the Opus tertium.It
appears that he was born in Ilchester, Somerset, about

1213. At 13 he entered Oxford University, where he spent
      eight years.

SCIENCE AND RELIGION SYNTHESIZED

In the 1240s, perhaps in the early years of the decade,
Bacon lectured at the University of PARISon the works of
ARISTOTLE. During this period he also wrote three works
on logic. Within a few years he changed his life by
returning to ENGLANDfrom FRANCE, by cultivating and
awakening his scientific interests, and by entering the
FRANCISCANorder.
Early in his empirical pursuits Bacon envisioned
a universal science that would promote the spread
of Christianity, prolong life, aid health, and synthesize
THEOLOGY and the science of experience. Theology
for Bacon was a theology based on scripture, not the
SCHOLASTIC and dialectical theology based on the Sen-
tencesof PETERLOMBARD.

POVERTY AND FRANCISCAN POLITICS

It is likely that Bacon became a Franciscan in 1252. By
Bacon’s time, as to a greater extent during the following
century, the work begun by Saint FRANCIShad posed
problems for his followers. Franciscans were required to

take a vow of poverty, but their work had swelled to

such size and importance that it was impossible to con-

tinue it unless the order owned or at least administered

property and other possessions. However, the acquisition

of property by the Franciscan order was seriously

questioned by a group of friars who claimed a literal

allegiance to Saint Francis. Bacon joined this group and

was a critic of clerical mores.

About 1257 Bacon was taken from England to France

and, for unknown reasons, underwent some kind of con-

finement and censorship, perhaps even an imprisonment,

in a French monastery. One theory is that his scientific

interest aroused suspicion, but it is more likely that his

views on Franciscan and clerical life proved unpopular

with the friars in England. Actually, this confinement had

no relation to an alleged conflict between science and

religion.

OPERA AND CONTRIBUTION

During his confinement, Bacon wrote his greatest works:

the Opus majus,the Opus minus,and the Opus tertium

(the big, the lesser, and the third work). Differences

among scholars concerning the order and purposes of

these works again underscore the many unknowns con-

cerning Bacon’s life. It seems that he intended to write a

treatise on the sciences but soon recognized the magni-

tude of such a task. Instead, he composed what is now

known as the Opus majus,in which he used materials

already written, added new material, and concluded a

section on ethics. The overall tone of the Opus majusis a

rhetorical plea to persuade the pope, Clement IV (r.

1265–68), of the importance and usefulness of experi-

mental knowledge. There is little evidence that Bacon

made any important contribution to science; he was,