106 Bernardino of Siena, Saint
Eucharist that were based on rational evidence and
dialectic argument. He finally went to Rome and
appeared at a synod in Lent 1059 presided over by Pope
NICHOLASII. There he had to destroy his writings on the
Eucharist, swear abjuration of his personal beliefs, and
make a profession of orthodoxy. Humiliated but freed
again, he returned to the attack and wrote a treatise, Con-
tra Synodum,which produced another severe refutation
and attack from Lanfranc. Summoned again to a Roman
synod in 1079, he was again forced to accept a definition
he did not believe. He retired to live as a hermit at Saint-
Cosme, where he died seemingly in peace with the doc-
trine of the church on January 10, 1088.
Further reading: Allan John Macdonald, Berengar
and the Reform of Sacramental Doctrine (1930; reprint,
Merrick, N.Y.: Richwood, 1977); Gary Macy, The Theolo-
gies of the Eucharist in the Early Scholastic Period: A Study
of the Salvific Function of the Sacrament According to the
Theologians, c. 1080–c. 1220(Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1984); Gary Macy, Treasures from the Storeroom; Medieval
Religion and the Eucharist(Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical
Press, 1999).
Bernardino of Siena, Saint (Bernardo degli Abizzeschi)
(1380–1444)Franciscan preacher, dominant figure of the
Observant reform
He was born on September 8, 1380, in Massa Marittima in
Tuscany, the son of a powerful family of SIENA, the
Abizzeschi. Bernardino was orphaned young. His paternal
uncle took care to give him a sound humanist and legal
education in Siena. When a plague hit Siena in 1400, as
part of a confraternity of penitents, he took over the direc-
tion of a hospital. This experience led to a conversion. On
September 8, 1402, after some hesitation, he chose the
reformed branch of the FRANCISCANObservance. He was
ordained a priest in 1404. His superiors quickly recog-
nized his talents and assigned him to preach.
From 1406 to 1427, he dedicated himself entirely to
PREACHINGand traveled all through ITA LY. Citizens trav-
eled by hundreds to hear the great showman’s sermons in
a public square. They sometimes lasted three hours. The
vigor of his moral teaching, expounded with ardour,
earthy humor, and sometimes a furrous asperity, inspired
numerous personal conversions. They often provoked
communal governments to issue statutes against sexual
sins and gambling. He showed himself particularly ardent
on not accepting usury and taking only legitimate com-
mercial profits. He strove to restore civil peace in towns
torn apart by factional conflicts. He preached a Crusade
against the TURKS. A rival DOMINICANpreacher accused
him of HERESYin 1423. Bernardino easily demonstrated
his orthodoxy at ROME. He continued to reform the
Franciscan Observance, of which he was vicar-general,
until 1443. By May 20, 1444, the date of his death at
L’ Aquila in the Abruzzi, the Observant Franciscans were
established in 230 convents. At his death, he was consid-
ered one of the greatest saints in Italy. His canonization
was solemnly proclaimed by Nicholas V at PENTECOSTin
the jubilee year of 1450.
Further reading:Ada M. Harrison, ed., Examples of
San Bernardino(London: G. Howe, 1926); Franco Mor-
mando, The Preacher’s Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the
Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy(Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1999); Iris Origo, The World
of San Bernardino(New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
1962); Cynthia Polecritti, Preaching Peace in Renaissance
Italy: Bernardino of Siena and His Audience(Washington,
D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2000).Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint (1090–1153)French Cis-
tercian monk, founder and abbot of the monastery of Clair-
vaux, theologian, doctor of the church
Born third of seven children in 1090 in Fontaines-lès-
Dijon of a noble family in BURGUNDY, Bernard was a tall,
handsome, slender youth endowed with considerable
charm, a knack for eloquence, sensitivity, and a passion
for learning. When he was 23, he persuaded two uncles,
his five brothers, and about 30 other young nobles to
enter the empty CISTERCIAN monastery of Cîteaux,
founded in 1098 in a swampy area near Dijon.
Life at Cîteaux was austere and included manual
labor, prayer, and study. Bernard’s ascetic practices
ruined his health, and he was often sick. In June 1115
he was chosen to lead a group of 12 monks in founding
a new monastery at Clairvaux, 70 miles from Cîteaux.
Bernard’s personality, holiness, and persuasiveness and
the beautiful LATINstyle of his writings soon made him
and the new foundation of Clairvaux famous through-
out Europe. He was sometimes very critical of certain
aspects of the contemporary church. He frequently
attacked in colorful language the monks of CLUNYfor
their eschewal of manual labor and for their rich cere-
monial dress and food.ECCLESIASTICAL CONTROVERSIES;
SECOND CRUSADE
Bernard soon became involved in important affairs of the
church. He played a role in drawing up the Rule of the
Knights Templar, obtaining approval for it at the Council
of Troyes in 1128. In 1130 Pope Innocent II (r. 1130–43),
a man of worthy character, was elected irregularly pope
by a minority of the cardinals. A few hours later the
majority of cardinals elected again irregularly an
antipope, Anacletus II (r. 1130–38). The eventual deci-
sion in favor of Innocent II was the result of Bernard’s
persuasion. Bernard, too, helped convince the German
emperor Conrad III (r. 1138–52) not to repudiate the
Concordat of Worms of 1122 and to support Innocent II
in a sorry conflict that lasted until the death of Anacletus
II in 1138.