Berry, John, duke of 107Two years later Bernard became deeply involved in
challenging Peter ABÉLARD. Opponents of Abélard
protested that his application of dialectic to theology was
dangerous to the point of destroying faith. Bernard
accepted Abélard’s challenge to a debate at the Council of
Sens in 1140. There Bernard presented a list of theses
taken from Abélard’s writings that showed how far he had
departed from the traditional faith and ideas. After the
pope condemned the theses, Abélard accepted the deci-
sion and made peace with Rome and Bernard.
The fall of EDESSAin 1143 led to a demand for a new
crusade to protect the kingdom of Jerusalem. Bernard
launched his first appeal for a crusade at VÉZELAYin
France in 1146. He preached successfully, linking crusad-
ing with gaining salvation, and even persuaded Emperor
Conrad III to join. He spoke out to protect the Jews from
attacks during the crusade. The failure of the Second
Crusade left Bernard heartbroken and dimmed his pres-
tige and popularity.
WORKS AND IDEASBernard’s name was associated with the “two swords the-
ory,” whereby both the spiritual and temporal swords
belonged to the pope and the church; the temporal sword
was to be used by the prince at the request of the church.
Bernard composed treatises on asceticism, polemical
works, commentaries on the BIBLE, and innumerable ser-
mons. His originality was most obvious in his biblical
commentaries and sermons.
When Bernard died on August 20, 1153, MIRACLES
were reported at once at the site of his tomb. His intellec-
tual influence among Christians has remained immense.
See alsoGILBERT OFPOITIERS.
Further reading: Adrian H. Bredero, Bernard of
Clairvaux: Between Cult and History (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Eerdmans, 1996); Gillian Evans, The Mind of
Bernard of Clairvaux (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983);
Étienne Gilson, The Mystical Theology of St. Bernard,
trans. A. H. C. Downes (London: Sheed and Ward, 1940).
Berry, John, duke of(Jean de France)(1340–1416)
patron of art and politician
He was born on November 30, 1340, at Vincennes near
Paris. During the reign of his father, John II (r.
1350–64), he was count of Poitou, participated in the
Battle of POITIERSin 1356, and served as a lieutenant for
his elder brother, the future king, CHARLES V (r.
1364–80). As part of the reorganization of the kingdom,
he received the duchies of Berry and Auvergne in 1360.
In the same year he married Jeanne d’Armagnac. As part
of the treaty of Brétigny, he was sent as a hostage to En-
gland and lived there until 1369. On his return to
France, his brother, King Charles V, appointed him royal
lieutenant general for much of western France. His duty
was to restore it to French rule from English domination.
He displayed little military talent and failed. On the
king’s death in 1380 and despite his brother’s disap-
proval, he served on the Council of Regency for his
nephew, Charles VI (1380–1422), and served as royal
lieutenant general in LANGUEDOC. Widowed when
Jeanne d’Armagnac died, in 1389 he married Jeanne de
Boulogne. When King Charles VI showed failing mental
health, John assumed authority in conjunction with his
own brother, Philip the Bold (1342–1404) of Burgundy,
and his nephew, Louis of Orléans (1372–1407), the
king’s brother. He seemed to try to reconcile the two
factions of the Burgundians and the ARMAGNACS.
He strongly condemned the murder of the duke of
Orléans in 1407 by Berry’s nephew, John the Fearless
(1371–1419), the duke of Burgundy. He explicitly sided
with the Armagnac party in 1410, even unscrupulously
becoming its chief. He died essentially broke and child-
less in Paris on June 15, 1416.A banquet with John, the duke of Berry, presiding, Limbourg
brothers (15th century), January, Très Riches Heures du Duc
de Berry,Ms. 65/1284, fol. 1v., Musée Condé, Chantilly,
France (Giraudon / Art Resource)