122 books or codices, history of
books or codices, history of Books became popular
in the fourth century, replacing the rolled manuscript.
Their advantages were several. Unlike in rolled
manuscripts, both sides of the page could be written on,
and information and texts could be retrieved quickly. A
book was also more durable than a rolled manuscript.
Beautiful page illustrations, illuminations, miniatures,
and bindings soon made the manuscript book a thing of
beauty, reflecting an owner’s status.
During late antiquity, the use and production of rolls
and the new codices declined and they were rare other than
in the new monastic houses or cathedral churches. These
libraries held Scriptures, liturgical books, and, in some,
works inherited from pagan culture. The reforms of some,
such as Abbot LUPUS OFFERRIÈRESin the ninth century,
promoted the transmission of books from one monastery to
another. With this and the evolving sophistications of copy-
ists and illuminators the manuscript book had a “golden
age” as part of the CAROLINGIANRENAISSANCE.
The production of books emerged from the SCRIPTO-
RIUMor monastic copying room and vastly increased with
the development of cathedral schools, then universities in
the 13th century. The appearance of new professional and
literate bodies specializing in the practice of writing and
texts, such as jurists, and a great increase in literacy among
nobility, merchants, and artisans created a need for book
production. They became necessary tools for business, sec-
ular studies, work, leisure, and private devotion. With this
their contents changed. Elaborate indexes and tables to find
books were perfected. Book production became an industry
carried out in workshops. PAPERbegan to be widely used
around 1300, at a cost that was soon about 13 times less
than that of PARCHMENT. The invention of movable type and
thus PRINTINGby Johann GUTENBERGin about 1450 in
Mainz further increased production of books.
See alsoBISTICCI,VESPASIANO;BOOKS OF HOURS; CODI-
COLOGY; ILLUMINATION; PAPYRUS AND PAPYROLOGY; PSALTERS.
Further reading:Linda L. Brownrigg, ed., Making the
Medieval Book: Techniques of Production(Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1994); Peter Ganz, ed., The Role of the
Book in Medieval Culture: Proceedings of the Oxford Interna-
tional Symposium, 26 September–1 October 1982(Turnhout:
Brepols, 1986): Norma Levarie, The Art and History of
Books(1968; reprint New Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll, 1995);
Rita Schlusemann, J. M. M. Hermans, and Margriet
Hoogvliet, eds., Sources for the History of Medieval Books
and Libraries(Groningen: E. Forsten, 1999).
Borgia family(Borja)SeeALEXANDERVI, POPE.
Boris I(ca. 830–907)first Christian prince, or khan, of
Bulgaria
He was born about 830 and his baptismal name was
Michael. Boris began his attempt to consolidate the
Bulgarian state by making an alliance with Louis the
German (804–876). At the same time he had to form an
alliance with BYZANTIUM. He agreed to convert and took
the name Michael in 865. The Bulgarian aristocracy, how-
ever, considered the introduction of Christianity and his
conversion acts of political submission to the Greeks. In
869–870, the Council of CONSTANTINOPLEdecreed that
BULGARIAcould have its own church organization and
appoint its own prelates with guidance from Con-
stantinople. He forced his people to convert and killed
those who refused. Boris nevertheless emancipated him-
self from Byzantine cultural tutelage but welcomed the
mission of CYRIL and Methodius, when they were
expelled from Moravia. His capital, Pliska, later Preslav,
and Ohrid became centers of Slavic-Christian culture. He
abdicated in 889 and retired to a monastery, where he
died on May 2, 907, after temporarily ending retirement
to suppress a pagan revival led by his son and successor.
Further reading:John V. A. Fine, The Early Medieval
Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth
Century(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991),
112–131.borough(burg, burgus, bourg)These terms originally
meant towns fortified by a surrounding wall and moats,
usually centered on a monastery or castle. From the late
10th century on, these terms designated new towns
founded in the Middle Ages without a bishopric or
Roman or classical roots. Not all new medieval settle-
ments were called boroughs or contained this term in
their name. Some continued to include in their name
terms similar to the Roman castrumor castle to signify
their origin, such as Chester in England or Chateau or
Castel, in French-speaking countries.
With great growth in the foundation and number of
medieval towns in the 12th century, these terms began to
identify towns that enjoyed specific liberties and privileges.
Some of their inhabitants were allowed to participate in
public life, if they owned their own house. Boroughs usu-
ally had their own governing councils and control of the
collection of taxes within their confines. The borough paid
a lump sum to a royal or princely treasury and was par-
tially able to apportion rates and collect revenues as it
wished. In England the king’s officials and magistrates
lived within the boroughs at their expense, but the inhabi-
tants might have benefited from access to the royal courts
in their towns. There remained a technical and legal dis-
tinction between a city and a borough. A city was always
the seat of a bishop. When a new episcopal see was cre-
ated, a borough was from then on defined as a city.
Another distinction entailed whether the town, commune,
or incorporated borough was under the authority of any
lord. Otherwise, boroughs and cities were identical.
See alsoCOMMUNE.
Further reading: Helen M. Jewell, English Local
Administration in the Middle Ages(Newton Abbot: David