138 Byzantine Empire and Byzantium
throughout much of eastern Europe and the Balkan
Peninsula. The effects of that cultural colonization have
continued to the present.
EARLY BYZANTINE STATEBasically a continuation of the late Roman Empire during
these centuries, the Byzantine Empire preserved and
adapted those fundamental institutions and practices
from the death of CONSTANTINEin 337 to the death of the
emperor HERAKLEIOSin 641. Its army enabled it to main-
tain its eastern borders against the Sassanians and absorb
much of the BARBARIANmigration and convert most of
them fairly quickly to Christianity. The Roman adminis-
tration and institutions of its government survived pri-
marily intact despite dynastic conflict at the top and
personnel losses through serious plagues. The economy
remained prosperous because of the continued vigor of
its urban life and agricultural productivity. Its main cities,
such as ANTIOCH,ALEXANDRIA, and Carthage, and many
smaller ones survived, somewhat diminished, but
remained important regional capitals and markets.
There was almost continual conflict internally, and at
times with the Western Church, slowly becoming cen-
tered on the PAPACY, over dogma, especially that of the
substance of the persons of the Trinity. In 325, at Nicaea,
the first council convoked and presided over by an
emperor in person, Constantine as the “thirteenth apos-
tle,” the ARIANposition was rejected. At the Council of
CHALCEDONin 451, an orthodox definition of the dual
nature of Christ was rejected, but a large part of the pop-
ulation of the eastern provinces turned to MONOPHYSITISM
and NESTORIANISM. At that same Council of CHALCEDON,
the preeminence of five particular sees or bishoprics was
maintained in the patriarchates of papal ROME, still tied
to the east; Alexandria; Antioch; CONSTANTINOPLE; and
JERUSALEM. Relations with the pope in Rome were never
simple but did not yet entail open conflict or schism.
In the sixth century, the emperor JUSTINIANtried to
restore Byzantine control over the western provinces of
North Africa and Italy. His best generals, BELISARIUSand
the eunuch Narses (ca. 480–575), won numerous battles
and restored Byzantine control, but those regions wereSerdica