150 capitulary
Capet the Great, who had been married to the sister of
the emperor OTTO I, his son, another HUGH Capet,
became the duke of the FRANKS, one of the most power-
ful positions in the country. He was elected king after the
death of the last Carolingian king, Louis V the Sluggard
(r. 986–987), in a hunting accident in 987. Hugh
defeated his rival’s followers. Though not really related
to the Carolingians, the family began its rule, until 1328,
of what was to become the kingdom of France. The
name of the dynasty arose from Hugh’s practice of wear-
ing a distinctive cloak. It was not, however, until the
reign of PHILIPII AUGUSTUSthat they were well estab-
lished on the throne and controlled more than the region
around PARIS. They were succeeded by the VALOIS
dynasty, when the direct male line failed.
See alsoLOUISIX, SAINT;PHILIPIV the FAIR.
Further reading:Elizabeth A. R. Brown, The Monar-
chy of Capetian France and Royal Ceremonial(London:
Variorum, 1991); Robert Fawtier, The Capetian Kings of
France: Monarchy and Nation, 987–1328, trans. Lionel
Butler and R. J. Adam (London: Macmillan, 1960);
Andrew W. Lewis, Royal Succession in Capetian France:
Studies on Familial Order and the State(Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1981).
capitulary A capitulary was a legislative act or ordi-
nance promulgated at the Carolingian annual general
assemblies. To these assemblies of the high officials,
counts, bishops, abbots, and important vassals, the king
submitted orally questions concerning the laws of the
kingdom. They gave advice, which was formulated by
the monarch into articles called chapters or capitulathat
when subsequently collected together formed the capitu-
lary for that year or meeting. They were then promul-
gated and circulated in writing so that royal officials
would have memoranda giving clear guidelines for pol-
icy and decision making.
CONTENTSome 200 capitularies have survived from the Carolin-
gian period, but the original manuscript copies have not
survived. In 789, after a general assembly, a capitulary of
82 chapters, the General Admonition, was issued. It pre-
sented an important program of administrative and reli-
gious reforms, including specifics on the teaching of
children and their subjects of study.
Most capitularies were entrusted to MISSI DOMINICIor
royal envoys to be read and applied in territories
entrusted to them or others. Others capitularies cor-
rected, supplemented, or modified laws. There were par-
ticular capitularies concerned with general questions,
such as the capitulary De villis,promulgated between 770
and 800. It sought to reform the administration of the
royal estates, paying special attention to the upkeep of
buildings, to furnishings, to women’s workshops, to the
exploitation of woods, to the making of wine, to the
preparation of food, and even to the plants to be culti-
vated in gardens and orchards. Charlemagne’s successors
continued this legislative work. In the reign of LOUISI
THEPIOUS, the capitularies were officially collected, but
soon forgeries of numerous chapters abounded.
See alsoCAROLINGIAN FAMILY AND DYNASTY;CAROLIN-
GIANRENAISSANCE; FORGERY.
Further reading:Paul Edward Dutton, ed., Carolin-
gian Civilization: A Reader (Peterborough: Broadview
Press, 1993); F. L. Ganshof, The Carolingians and the
Frankish Monarchy, trans. Janet Sondheimer (London:
Longman, 1971); H. R. Lyon and John Percival, eds., The
Reign of Charlemagne: Documents on Carolingian Govern-
ment and Administration(London: Edward Arnold, 1975).cardinal or natural virtues A term used by the
medieval church, which borrowed a classification
from PLATOand ARISTOTLE. The four cardinal virtues,
prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice, according
to Saint AUGUSTINE, would lead the faithful to perfec-
tion. They complemented the four “theological virtues”
of faith, hope, continence, and charity, which led to
salvation.
Further reading: Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal
Virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance, trans.
Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Harcourt, Brace
& World, 1965).Cardinals, College of The origin of the term cardi-
nalisitself was unclear. In the Middle Ages Cardinalis
seemed to have referred to bishops, priests, and deacons
who held a church for which they had not been conse-
crated, but to which they had been appointed a cardinal.
Cardinal clerics were present in the many dioceses, of
ITA LY,FRANCE,GERMANY, and ENGLANDand took part in
liturgical worship alongside the bishop. The title cardi-
nalis likely referred to their affiliation as cathedral
clergy.CLASSIFICATION, EVOLUTION,
AND DEFINITION
By the middle of the 11th century, three groups of cardi-
nals existed at ROME. These were the cardinal-bishops,
who were present at Roman synods before the middle of
the 11th century. There were the titulars of seven, then
six dioceses situated near Rome, at Ostia, Albano, Palest-
rina, Porto, Silva Candida, Gabii, and Velletri Sabina.
They were to perform, once a week, a liturgical service at
the basilica of Saint John Lateran. Other cardinal-priests
were responsible for the fourth-century churches or basil-
icas of Saint Peter’s, Saint Lawrence outside the Walls,
Saint Paul’s outside the Walls, and Santa Maria Maggiore.
Around 1100, the cardinal-priests council number seven
for each basilica. Cardinal-deacons were divided into