Kingdom of France,
into two parts. The first part was concerned with the
interpretation of the Bible and the lives and works of
eminent church fathers; the second was a manual for the
study of the SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS. Cassiodorus died
between 575 and 585 at Vivarium, well in his 90s. His
plan for preserving and copying manuscripts was fol-
lowed by many later monasteries, and his Institutionswas
for many medieval readers their introduction to the lib-
eral arts. His monastic establishments vanished soon
after his death, but their copied manuscripts and his
ideas survived.
Further reading:Leslie Webber Jones, An Introduc-
tion to Divine and Human Readings(New York: Columbia
University Press, 1946); James J. O’Donnell, Cassiodorus
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979); Pierre
Riché, Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From
the Sixth through the Eighth Century,trans. John J. Con-
treni (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press,
1976), 17–189; James J. Murphy, Rhetoric in the Middle
Ages: A History of Rhetorical Theory from Saint Augustine
to the Renaissance (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1974), 43–88.
Castile, kingdom of Castile or “the land of castles”
was first mentioned in the ninth century, as a small fron-
tier kingdom near Oviedo in the Cantabrian mountains
north of Burgos and near the region of the BASQUES.It
grew out of the kingdoms of ASTURIASand LEÓN, whose
rulers had built the castles and taken territory back from
the Muslims. In 884 a Count Diego Rodriguez founded
the town of Burgos. In the 10th century, the country of
Castile was formed by means of the union of several
small counties by Count Fernán González (930–970). He
expanded the area and gained more independence for his
territory, fought victoriously against Muslims, and moved
the frontier farther south to the Duero River. He also
founded monasteries, appealed for peace with the Muslim
population, and created matrimonial alliances with the
Kings of Aragon
FOUNDATION OF THE KINGDOM
At the death of Fernán González’s last male descendant in
1029, Castile passed to the control of the house and king-
dom of Navarre. Ferdinand I the Great (r. 1029–65), the
second son of Sancho III (r. 1004–35) of Navarre, became
count of Castile and defeated Vermundo III (r. 1028–37),
the king of León, in 1037. Maintaining this union of the
two kingdoms was consistently difficult until 1230, when
Saint Ferdinand III (r. 1217–52) united them more per-
manently. It was further solidified in 1302 when the
CORTESbecame one body for both kingdoms. From then
on Castile grew in prestige over León. Epic poems cele-
brated Castile and Castilians in the genuine and leg-
endary exploits of RODRIGODÍAZ DEVIVAR, the Cid, the
mythical early founders, and Count Fernán González.
King Alfonso VIII the Noble (r. 1158–1214) of Castile
founded a university at Palencia in 1180 and won the
important Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa 1212, which led
to further conquests in Muslim AL-ANDALUS.Christian Reconquest of Iberia
During the 12th century, medieval Castile merged with
or took over León, GALICIA, and the cities of SEVILLE,
CÓRDOBA, Murcia, TOLEDO, and Jaén. The RECONQUEST,a
military undertaking linked by Pope PASCHALII in 1102
to the concept of Crusade, promoted the development of
a Castilian society with free men liable to military service,
including peasants, merchants, and artisans. All were
able and expected to bear arms. The Crown also had to
undertake measures to repopulate the territories con-
quered from the retreating Muslims. The geographical
and ecological features of the expanding kingdom favored
the growth of ANIMALhusbandry as the basis for the rural
economy.LATER MIDDLE AGES
The Reconquest slowed after the incorporation of the
greater part of al-Andalus between 1230 and 1270. The
first half of the 14th century was marked by famines, var-
ious calamities, plagues, civil war, and violence. From
1369, Castile enjoyed more peace and security under the
new dynasty of the Trastámara family. However, the
power of the nobility continued to grow at the expense of
that of the Crown, and there were bloody pogroms
against the Jews in 1391. The choice of Castilian as offi-
cial language of his growing kingdom was made by King
ALFONSOX THELEARNED. As a result legal codes, chroni-
cles, scientific texts, and some notarial and chancery acts
were written in that language.
At the end of the 15th century, nevertheless, the
kingdom of Castile had become the most populated
realm in the Iberian Peninsula. Its commercial activity
was strong and its king was theoretically the most power-
ful. Its center remained fixed in the northern region from
which it developed in the 11th and 12th centuries. This
core contained Burgos, Valladolid, Medina del Campo,
and Segovia. The marriage in 1469 of the Catholic rulers,
FERDINANDII of Aragon and ISABELI of Castile, both
related to King John II of Aragon (ca. 1458–79), led to
the union of the two countries that formed the kingdom
of Spain.
See also ALCÁNTARA,ORDER OF;ALMOHADS;
ALMORAVIDS;CALATRAVA,ORDER OF;GRANADA;PORTUGAL.
Further reading:Bernard F. Reilly, The Kingdom of
León-Castilla under Queen Urraca, 1109–1126(Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982); Bernard F. Reilly,
The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI,
1065–1109(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
1988); Teófilo F. Ruiz, Crisis and Continuity: Land and
Town in Late Medieval Castile(Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1994).