Chrysostom, John, Saint 177LOMBARD,PETER; MONOPHYSITISM;NESTORIANISM;TRINI-
TARIAN DOCTRINE.
chronicles and annals, Christian Chronicles have
been among the main sources for medieval history and
were one of the most popular forms of historical writing
in the Middle Ages. The term, of Greek origin, meant a
history presented in chronological form in a style sug-
gested by books of the BIBLEsuch as Chronicles I and II.
From the beginning of the Middle Ages, both Byzantine
and western European chroniclers borrowed earlier
material, usually beginning with short summaries of
sacred and Roman history. In most cases only a portion
of these chronicles was original and corresponded to
events that took place during the lifetime of the writer.
These chronicles could be divided into universal,
national, and local. Annals listed events by date.
In Byzantium, the Chronicleof PROCOPIUS OFCAE-
SAREAdealt with the period of Justinian and concen-
trated on the imperial court. In western Europe, the
Chronicle of GREGORY OF TOURS in the late sixth
century and of BEDEin the seventh century provided
models for later ones. Most of these earlier histories
were written by churchmen or monks not especially
dependent upon the royal courts. Though concerned
with uncritically protecting and justifying the interests
of the church, the chroniclers enjoyed considerable
freedom in their didactic evaluations and criticisms of
political events and the character of prominent person-
alities. However, they often were not well informed and
relied heavily on hearsay; they had little interest in eco-
nomic and social matters, rarely using or quoting docu-
ments that might be more objective about events or
people. During the course of the Middle Ages and in
the early Renaissance, chronicles sometimes became
more objective in their judgments and certainly more
sophisticated in their use of sources and analytical
methods of history writing. As opposed to the Latin of
the earlier period, by the late Middle Ages many were
written in the vernacular.
See alsoADAM OFBREMEN;BRUNI,LEONARDO;FROIS-
SART,JEAN;FULCHER OFCHARTRES;GEOFFREY OFMON-
MOUTH;GERALD OFWALES;KOMNENE,ANNA;MATTHEW
PARIS;OTTO OFFREISING;PSELLOS,MICHAEL;VILLANI,
GIOVANNI ANDMATTEO;WILLIAM OFTYRE.
Further reading: William J. Brandt, The Shape of
Medieval History: Studies in Modes of Perception (New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1966); Antonia
Gransden, Historical Writing in England,2 vols. (London:
Routledge, 1996); Denys Hay, Annalists and Historians:
Western Historiography from the Eighth to the Eighteenth
Centuries(London: Methuen, 1977); Beryl Smalley, Histo-
rians in the Middle Ages(London: Thames & Hudson,
1974); John Taylor, The Use of Medieval Chronicles(Lon-
don: Historical Association, 1965).
Chrysoloras, Manuel (ca. 1350/53–1415) diplomat,
scholar
Born about 1350 in Constantinople, Manuel Chrysoloras
greatly influenced the humanists of FLORENCE, where he
taught from 1397 to 1400. The leading Florentine Hell-
enizing humanists of that era, including GUARINOof
Verona and Leonardo BRUNI, were his pupils in the study
of Greek and the classics. He taught them the skills for
translation and textual analysis, imparting a love of
Greek literature. The texts they used were frequently
taken from Manuel’s own important library, which he
had transported with him to Florence. His skills as a
diplomat were appreciated and used by the emperor
Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425), who became a
friend and adviser. After converting to the Latin church
and toward the end of his life, he lived in VENICEand
ROME; he died on April 15, 1415, while at the Council of
CONSTANCE.
Further reading:John W. Barker, Manuel II Palaeolo-
gus (1391–1425): A Study in Late Byzantine Statesmanship
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1969);
Roberto Weiss, Medieval and Humanist Greek: Collected
Essays(Padova: Antenore, 1977).Chrysostom, John, Saint (John of Constantinople,
the Golden Mouthed)(ca. 345–407)bishop of Con-
stantinople, renowned orator
Born at ANTIOCHin SYRIAin the 340s, John became a
monk and studied there as a young man with eminent
teachers of RHETORIC, PHILOSOPHY, and THEOLOGY. Adopt-
ing the life of Christian asceticism, as a desert recluse he
practiced austerities so severe that his health collapsed,
forcing him to return to his native city at about age 33.
At Antioch, John was ordained a deacon in 381 and a
priest five years later. As a preacher, he drew the enthusi-
astic approval both of his bishop and of the LAITY. His
sermons were notable for their exposition of the histori-
cal meaning of Scripture as opposed to a more obscure
allegorical interpretation, for their concern with problems
of everyday life, and for their acerbic criticism of the
loose morality of the city.BISHOP OF CONSTANTINOPLE
The fame of John’s preaching spread to CONSTANTINOPLE.
In late 397 he was kidnapped and taken there by military
escort. Under pressure from the government and the
church he reluctantly agreed to be consecrated bishop of
that city in 398. His personal simplicity, his determina-
tion for the moral reform of the clergy, and his bombastic
and caustic comments on life at the court created ene-
mies, the most powerful of whom was the empress
Eudokia, the wife of Arcadios (ca. 377–404). She found a
convenient ally in Theophilos, bishop of ALEXANDRIA
(d. 412), who had long harbored resentment of John’s
elevation over his own candidate to the bishopric of