clothing and costume 183Further reading: Brian Tierney, ed., The Crisis of
Church and State, 1050–1300 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice Hall, 1964), 172–179; Charles T. Wood, ed.,
Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII: State and Papacy(New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967), 29–46.
Clermont, Council ofThis council was summoned by
Pope URBAN II for the reform of the church and the
PREACHINGof the First Crusade. It met at Clermont in the
Auvergne in France between November 18 and 28, 1095,
and was attended by some 300 CLERGY, overwhelmingly
southern French. Besides proclaiming a remission of all
penances for those who traveled to JERUSALEMto free the
holy sites, it passed numerous other laws and confirmed
the PEACE ANDTRUCE OFGODand many matters of cleri-
cal and lay discipline. King Philip I (r. 1060–1108) of
France was excommunicated for ADULTERY. No genuine
documentation of its legislation survived. Its canons must
be pieced together from many later collections. Urban II
preached the Crusade in an open field on November 27 to
a great crowd of clergy and LAITY. This event formed the
starting point for the First Crusade.
Further reading:Edward Peters, ed., The First Cru-
sade: The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres and Other Source
Materials,2d ed. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylva-
nia Press, 1998 [1971]), 25–46; Steven Runciman, A His-
tory of the Crusades,Vol. 1, The First Crusade and the
Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem(Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1951).
clocks and time measurement The use of a clock as
an instrument for measuring time dates from antiquity.
The caliph AL-HARUN AL-RASHID presented one to
CHARLEMAGNEin 802. By the 10th century, water clocks
were used in churches and monasteries. A monk was
appointed watchman to check it according to the position
of the stars. Until the 14th century, the sundial or canoni-
cal clock remained the most common and popular device
used for measuring time.
The canonical hours were unequal and varied with
the seasons. The measurement of time began with the
morning sunrise, with the ninth hour linked with lunch.
From the 12th century on, bells announced the working
hours for the laity.
Mechanical or weight-driven clocks appeared in the
13th century. A mid-13th-century manuscript, written for
ALFONSOX of CASTILE, described a clock operated by a
falling weight controlled by the passage of mercury
through small openings. Mechanical clocks, were soon
introduced in CATHEDRALS. Kings and feudal princes
introduced mechanical clocks in their courts. Towns
placed clocks on their civil centers that were supposed to
indicate official time for work and wage payments.
Further reading:Ernest L. Edwardes, Weight-Driven
Chamber Clocks of the Middle Ages and Renaissance
(Altrincham: J. Sherratt, 1965); David Landes, Revolution
in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World(Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984); Herbert
Alan Lloyd, Some Outstanding Clocks over Seven Hundred
Years, 1250–1950(London: L. Hill, 1958).cloister or claustration A cloister was an enclosed
space called a garth in the Middle Ages and in modern
times. It formed the central part of a monastery and most
religious buildings. It consisted of an open plot or court-
yard surrounded on all four sides by covered paths with
roofs supported on their inner sides by arcades facing
the open space and on their outer sides often enclosed
by the walls of a church or another major monastic
building. Members of the monastery or house could not
leave its confines without the permission of the abbot.
The term was also used in general for a religious house,
or the religious life.
Further reading:Noëlle Deflou, “Cloister” in EMA,
1.321–2; Daniel Faure and Véronique Rouchon Mouilleron,
Cloisters of Europe: Gardens of Prayer,trans. Deke Dusin-
berre (New York: Viking Studio, 2001).clothing and costume Examples of medieval cloth-
ing have not survived in great numbers. What has been
discovered about it has been derived from archaeologi-
cal work, depictions in manuscripts, and documents
concerning the cloth trade. These sources primarily
described upper-class clothing and costume. Some
records concerning cutting and sewing can be found.
The primary textiles and natural products that were
used in the better and more expensive kind of clothing
were LINEN, SILK, and FURS, from squirrel to sable.
Leather and animal skins were of varied quality and
used for shoes, headwear, bags, whole garments, andThe cloister of the Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay in Burgundy
(Courtesy Edward English)