Copts and the Coptic language 197became a human being, on the 41st day of the pregnancy.
Some Muslims thought this occurred on the 120th day.
Vaguely condemned as depriving the female of the plea-
sure due her, in Islam coitus interruptus, condoms of ani-
mal skins, or similar practices were used by the elite for
contraception. The poor employed abortion and infanticide.
See alsoCHILDREN AND CHILDHOOD; PROSTITUTION.
Further reading: Peter P. A. Biller, “Birth-Control
in the West in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth
Centuries,” Past and Present94 (February, 1982): 3–26;
Basim F. Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam: Birth Control
before the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1983); John T. Noonan, Jr. Contracep-
tion: A History of Its Treatment by the Catholic Theologians
and Canonists (Cambridge: The Belknap Press, 1966);
John M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the
Ancient World to the Renaissance (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1992); Angus McLaren, A His-
tory of Contraception: From Antiquity to the Present
(Oxfrod: Blackwell, 1990).
contrition SeeSEVEN SACRAMENTS.
cooking and cookery Medieval collections of recipes
overwhelmingly have preserved the practices of cooks in
the service of the upper clergy and princes. Medieval
cooking used a variety and abundance of SPICES and
sweeteners when they were available, such as ginger, cin-
namon, sugar, and SAFFRON. Diet was also dependent on
season and latitude; there was an extensive trade in grain
and luxury foodstuffs from the 13th century. Variety of
condiment was supplemented by abundance and the
combination of what was available. Religious obligations
required the eating of fish by Christians on a regular basis
according to a calendar and forbade the eating of certain
foods by Jews and Muslims. Meat was usually accompa-
nied by sauces of varied richness and fat content. There
were few fried dishes except along the Mediterranean. By
the end of the Middle Ages, the ancient Roman tradition
of using fish sauce as a condiment was limited to that
coastline. Butter tended to be commonly used in more
northern areas, and southern cuisines deployed olive oil.
Without many options in cooking utensils, peasants were
rarely able to cook anything but boiled or stewed dishes.
A spit was a sign of luxury and the eating of meats on a
regular basis a mark of social distinction. Diners during
this period no longer reclined on their sides at table, but
sat upright the better to taste roasted meats in particular.
The implements for eating were primarily fingers and
some knives and spoons.
See alsoCOURTESY BOOKS AND COURTESY LITERATURE;
FASTING AND ABSTINENCE; FEASTS AND FESTIVALS; FOOD,
DRINK, AND NUTRITION; WINE AND WINEMAKING.
Further reading: Melitta Weiss Adamson, Regional
Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays(New York:
Routledge, 2002); Phyllis Pray Bober, Art, Culture, and
Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy(Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1999); Odile Redon, Françoise
Sabban, and Silvano Serventi, The Medieval Kitchen:
Recipes from France and Italy,trans. Edward Schneider
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); Terence
Scully, The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages(Wood-
bridge, England: Boydell Press, 1995).Copts and the Coptic language The word Coptwas
employed by the ARABSto designate the Christian Egyp-
tians, who formed the Coptic “nation” for taxation pur-
poses. They remained the majority of the population of
EGYPTfrom the Arab conquest in the seventh century
until the 11th century, when the pressures and advan-
tages of conversion cut their numbers. Between the 12th
and 14th centuries, they became a minority of 8 to 10
percent of the population.
The Coptic form of Christianity (some presently rec-
ognize the authority of the pope, whereas others do not)
was usually centered on the city of Alexandria, a con-
stant rival to the bishops or patriarchs of ROME,CON-
STANTINOPLE,JERUSALEM, and ANTIOCH. Since the fifth
century, MONASTICISMhas also played an important role
in the survival of the church. The Byzantine Empire cen-
tered at Constantinople was often in dispute with the
various Coptic churches over theological questions such
as the relationship of Christ with the rest of the Trinity.
This led to frequent persecutions of supposedly heretical
believers in Egypt, the predecessors of the Coptic
Church of today.COPTIC LANGUAGE
The Coptic language is descended from an old Egyptian
language and was used in preference to Greek for
worship. There were important liturgical and theological
works in Coptic in the seventh century, but literary
output in that language has continued to decline since.
Arabic was imposed for administrative acts in 705.
Under the sultan BAYBARSI in the 13th century there was
a strong effort to exclude literate Copts from roles in the
Islamic government. Many Coptic manuscripts were
copied in monasteries where Coptic culture and religious
ideas were kept alive in the 11th and 12th centuries.
However, new works tended more and more to be writ-
ten in Arabic, the learned language of their surrounding
population. In the 14th century, there was an effort to
preserve the language so grammars and dictionaries were
composed.
See alsoABYSSINIA; ANCHORITES AND ANCHORESSES;
ATHANASIUS OF ALEXANDRIA,SAINT;CHALCEDON,
COUNCIL OF;CHURCH,EASTERNORTHODOX;CYRIL OF
ALEXANDRIA; DHIMMI; EPHESUS,ECUMENICAL COUNCIL
OF;FATIMIDS;GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS,SAINT; MONO-
PHYSITISM;PACHOMIUS;TULUNIDS.