206 Cumans
crypts were attempts to accommodate a growing influx
of pilgrims and prevent them from disturbing liturgical
activities. As a solution to those problems, the crypt was a
wide and enduring success. Its use for burial purposes
grew in the ninth century. Carolingian crypts were exten-
sive spaces for the now more common practice of burying
important people along with their monuments. The 10th
century saw a standardization of these spaces by providing
several aisles, separated by columns, and leading to an
apse, much like the churches above. They became lower
churches for the recitation of prayers said near relics or for
the dead. During the GOTHICperiod, chapels around the
ambulatory around the main altar in upper levels of
churches were more used for relics and burials.
See alsoBURIAL RULES AND PRACTICES; CATACOMBS; PIL-
Pilgrimage Routes and Places
Further reading: Stephen Heywood, “Crypt,” The
Dictionary of Art,8.222–225; Kenneth J. Conant, Carolin-
gian and Romanesque Architecture, 800–1200 (1959;
reprint, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978);
Roger Stalley, Early Medieval Architecture(Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1999).
Cumans (Kumans, Kun, Kipchaks, Polovtsy) Cumans
were a Turkish-speaking confederation of nomads from
central Asia who served as standing troops for BYZANTIUM
in the 12th through 13th centuries. Known as skillful
archers, the Cumans moved into the southern Russian
steppe or Ukraine in the mid-11th century and attached
themselves to Byzantine armies as mercenaries. In 1091,
ALEXIOSI KOMNENOSemployed them to annihilate the
Petchenegs at the battle of Mount Lebounion. In the 12th
century they were enrolled in large numbers into the
army, in which their skill as mounted archers was valued.
They also began to settle Byzantine territory, where some
were given grants of land. Many Cumans served Byzan-
tium, but others remained threats. Manuel I Komnenos
(r. 1143–80) crushed a Cuman raid across the Danube
after the Second Crusade. Some Cumans assisted the
revolt of the Bulgarians Peter (d. 1197) and Asen I (d.
1196) against Byzantium in 1186. They served in the
army of the Bulgarian ruler Kalojan (r. 1197–1207) that
in 1205 destroyed a LATINarmy from Constantinople,
capturing BALDWIN OFFLANDERS. They were decisive in
the victory of the Bulgarian czar John Asen II (ca.
1195/96–1241) at the Battle of Klokotnitsa in 1230
against a Greek invasion.
Around 1241 the MONGOLSdefeated what was left of
the Cumans, driving the remnants into Byzantine terri-
tory. Some settled along the frontiers of Thrace and MACE-
DONIA, and in MOLDAVIAand ANATOLIA. Others fled to
HUNGARYand BULGARIA; others were captured and con-
verted to Islam eventually becoming MAMLUKS. In their
last appearance in history, Cumans were in the army of
the future emperor Michael VIII Palaeologos (r. 1261–82)
in his victory at the Battle of Pelagonia in 1259 against the
Latin occupiers of Greece.
See alsoBULGARIA ANDBULGARS.
Further reading:Andras Paloczi-Horvath, Pechenegs,
Cumans, Iasians: Steppe Peoples in Hungary,trans. Timo-
thy Wilkinson (Budapest: Corvina, 1989); Erik Hildinger,
Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia
(New York: Saypedon, 1997); Jean Richard, “Cumans” in
EMA,1.396–7.currency SeeCOINAGE AND CURRENCY.Cyprus, island and kingdom of (Kibris, Qubrus)
Medieval Cyprus was an island located in the eastern
Mediterranean. The island’s importance was its strategic
location near the coasts of SYRIAand southern ANATOLIA
dominating the eastern Mediterranean. Beginning about
647 the Byzantine-controlled island was attacked by
ARABS, resulting in the abandonment of some coastal
cities. A treaty of 688 with ABD AL-MALIKdivided Cyprus
in two and made it a neutral zone with tax revenues
divided between the ABBASIDS and BYZANTIUM. The
Byzantine emperor BASILI held the island for a few years,
but only with the conquest of the emperor Nikephoros II
Phokas (ca. 963–969) in 965 was it moved more perma-
nently into Byzantine control again.
Its location on the way to Palestine made Cyprus a
place of retreat and a source of food and supplies for the
crusader kingdoms. However, this closeness allowed Rey-
nald of Châtillon (d. 1187) to attack it in 1157. In 1184
the self-proclaimed ruler of the island, Isaac Komnenos,
declared Cyprus independent. However, in 1191 Isaac
was captured when RICHARD I LIONHEARTconquered
Cyprus during the Third Crusade. Cyprus remained a
feudal monarchy in crusader hands under the LUSIGNAN
family until 1489, when VENICE acquired it. The
OTTOMANStook it from the Venetians in 1571.
Further reading:P. W. Edbury, The Kingdom of Cyprus
and the Crusades, 1191–1374(Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1991); George Hill, History of Cyprus;Vol. 1,
To the Conquest by Richard Lion Heart;Vol. 2, The Frankish
Period, 1192–1432 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1948–1972); Charlotte Roueché, “Asia Minor and
Cyprus,” in The Cambridge Ancient History,Vol. 19, Late
Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600,ed. Averil
Cameron, Bryan Ward-Perkins, and Michael Whitby
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 570–587.Cyril, Saint (Constantine) (the Philosopher) (ca. 827–
869),and Methodios, Saint (Michael) (ca. 825–884/5)
and apostles of the Slavs Greek missionaries, apostles
of the Slavic peoples
Methodios was two years old when his brother, Constan-
tine, the future Cyril, was born in THESSALONIKIin north-