236 Egypt
Ætheling, in exile in HUNGARYsince 1016, visited him
but died soon after his arrival in mysterious circum-
stances. His death made it clear that Edward’s successor
would be either William of Normandy or the popular
Harold of Wessex. Edward became increasingly absorbed
in religious matters, devoting much of his attention to the
founding of Westminster Abbey. He also loved hunting
and was less ascetic and pious than his posthumous repu-
tation, as suggested by a biography written soon after his
death. Edward died on January 5, 1066. Harold was
quickly chosen as his successor, but by the end of the
year WILLIAMI THECONQUERORwas crowned king at
Westminster. Edward was canonized at the request of
King HENRYII in 1161.
See alsoBAYEUXTAPESTRY;HASTINGS,BATTLE OF.
Further reading: Frank Barlow, ed., The Life of
Edward the Confessor Who Rests at Westminster,(London:
Thomas Nelson, 1962); Frank Barlow, Edward the Confes-
sor(London: Eyre Methuen, 1979); Peter A. Clarke, The
English Nobility under Edward the Confessor (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1994). Eyre Methuen, 1979); Peter A.
Clarke, The English Nobility under Edward the Confessor
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
Egypt Islamic Egypt is a country in the northeastern
part of North AFRICA. It had been one of the most
prosperous provinces of the BYZANTINEEMPIREand an
important cultural and religious center. The patriarchs
of ALEXANDRIAenjoyed great prestige as leaders of the
Eastern or Orthodox Church. After the constitutional
reforms of JUSTINIANI in the sixth century, centralizing
the eastern church in CONSTANTINOPLE, the authority
and prestige of the patriarchs of Alexandria quickly
declined. This incited opposition, which produced
alternative religious groups, such as the monophysites
and Monothelites and the autonomous COPTICChurch.
The attempts of the emperor HERAKLEIOSto create more
religious unity through the issuance of a decree in 637
did not yield the expected results. On the eve of the
ARABinvasion, Egypt tended to oppose Byzantine con-
trol. These divisions enabled the Arabs, who invaded
Egypt in 640, to conquer the country without much
resistance and, by April 641, Byzantine domination in
Egypt had ended.
CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS CHANGEThe Arab conquest created political changes and ushered
in sociocultural evolution. It transformed Egypt into an
Arab and Muslim country. From their military center at
AL-FUSTAT, south of the Nile Delta near modern-day
CAIRO, the conquerors fostered conversion to ISLAMby
the majority of the populace, although important
minorities of Coptic and Greek Christians, as well as
JEWS, survived. Egypt became a province of the UMAYYAD
and ABBASID CALIPHATES. Islamization put the conquerors
in contact with the important Greek center of Alexan-
dria. The Arabs assimilated much classical and Hellenis-
tic Greek heritage into their thought, translating the
Greek philosophical and scientific works into Arabic.
Egypt became one of the centers of Arab SCIENCE. The
TULUNIDgovernors of the ninth century brought eco-
nomic development and a prosperity based on Mediter-
ranean trade and on the relations with Sudan and North
Africa. The decline of the Abbasid caliphate by the end
of the ninth century gave the governors of Egypt much
autonomy but deprived them of support from a strong
central government.FATIMID CONTROL
The FATIMIDdynasty took advantage of this to conquer
Egypt in 974, founding the new city of Cairo, the capital
of their new caliphate. Egypt thus became independent
and gained an important position in Islam, due to the
SHIITEallegiance to the Fatimids. they also conquered
large territories in PALESTINE,SYRIA, and Hejaz. The al-
Azhar MOSQUEat Cairo became a hub of Muslim learning
and made Egypt an important center of Islamic studies,
as well as of scientific work. By the 10th and 11th cen-
turies, Egypt was the commercial crossroads between the
Mediterranean and the East, enhanced by its control over
Syrian and Palestinian ports.CRUSADES
The arrival in the Middle East of the SELJUKTURKSin
1071 dealt a blow to the Fatimids, who lost numerous
provinces and JERUSALEMto the Seljuks but maintained
rule over the coastal cities of Syria and Palestine. At
the beginning of the 12th century these towns were
captured by the crusaders, along with the coast of
Syria. Attempts by the Fatimids to recover territories
between 1100 and 1110 were unsuccessful. The dynasty
declined, with military viziers becoming the actual
rulers of Egypt.
The establishment of the Italian merchants at ACRE,
TYRE, and ANTIOCHgave them a near monopoly over
trade between East and West. This was another serious
blow to the Egyptian economy, aggravating Fatimid
decline. The crusaders attempted the conquest of Egypt.
In 1169, a crusading army reached the Nile. Only the
arrival of an army under the command of SALADIN, sent
by NUR AL-DINof Syria, defeated the conquest. In 1170
Saladin ended the Fatimid dynasty and established the
Ayyubid dynasty. He became governor of Egypt and
united it with Syria in 1174. His own government
remained centered in Syria.THE AYYUBIDS AND THE MAMLUKS
After Saladin’s death, the Ayyubid Empire was divided,
and Egypt gained its independence under the rule of
al-Adil (r. 1200–18). The Ayyubid sultans were often
involved in frequent and debilitating disputes with