10 Abyssinia
Wine Song in Classical Arabic Poetry: Abu Nuwas and
the Literary Tradition(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997);
Ewald Wagner, “Abu Nuwa ̄ s,” Encyclopedia of Islam,
1.143–144.
Abyssinia(Ethiopia)The political state of ancient
Abyssinia, which became an empire at the dawn of the
Middle Ages, stretched westward to the valley of the Nile
and southward to the Somali coast in what is today
northern Ethiopia, from about the fifth century B.C.E.
until the early Christian period. During the first millen-
nium B.C.E., a centralized government with its capital at
AXUMevolved in the north.
The early state expanded, moving west far into the
interior highlands, and eventually became the kingdom
that came to be known as Abyssinia in early Christian
times. Under the influence of Egyptian monks, Abyssinia
adopted Christianity as the state religion during the reign
of Emperor Ezana (ca. 325–ca. 360), with Axum still at
the height of its political, military, and economic power.
This Africanized Christianity produced the culture of
Abyssinia, including its literature, art, music, law, and
architecture.
An important ally of the Byzantine Empire in its wars
against the Persians in the early seventh century, Abyssinia
became isolated from the centers of Christianity by the
Islamic expansion and developed independently. This
ancient African kingdom reached the zenith of its power at
the dawn of the Middle Ages in Europe, by which time it
had grown into an empire extending from the island of
Meroe to the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, a territory
nearly twice the size of western Europe. From the port of
Adulis, it controlled the important international maritime
trade moving through the Red Sea and maintained cultural
contact with the East and the Mediterranean world. It was
probably through Adulis that early Christian missionaries
who accompanied the Red Sea traders and travelers began
their evangelizing activities.
RELIGIONS IN ABYSSINIAChristianity entered Abyssinia directly from Syria and
Palestine. The fourth-century monk Frumentius, who
played an important role in the creation of the Christian
state, studied with ATHANASIUS OFALEXANDRIAand upon
returning to Abyssinia became its first bishop. During the
Arian controversy, Emperor Constantius II considered it
important to seek the support of Abyssinian Christians
when he wrote to Abyssinian rulers. Calling them his
“esteemed brothers,” he asked them to expel Athanasius,
who was rumored to have fled to Abyssinia, and to accept
an Arian bishop. Abyssinian Christian leaders were not
ready to be drawn into theological controversies and,
after settlement of the Monophysite controversy at the
Council of Chalcedon in 451, tried to remain on good
terms with all parties.
Islam was introduced to Abyssinia through JIHADas
well as migration and nomadic movements. Christianity
remained the official religion during the period of the
European Middle Ages, but the newly Muslim states were
given recognition and were part of an Abyssinian Empire.
Though there was conflict between these Christian and
Muslim states, at times joined by a Falasha Jewish state,
the relative tolerance given by the Abyssinian rulers per-
mitted recognition of their authority as the protectors of
Christians in Muslim lands elsewhere in Islam.HISTORY TO THE MIDDLE AGES
In the middle of the seventh century, with the rise of Islam
as a world power, Abyssinia had lost control over the
trade of the Red Sea, a major source of economic and
international wealth and power. During this new era of
isolation, Abyssinia looked to its west and interior for new
ways of economic wealth and stability. In the 10th century
the capital was moved to Agaw land in the highlands; but
the old north remained the spiritual center of the nation
with Axum as the national holy city. About this time some
of the coastal population began to embrace Islam, further
culturally isolating Abyssinia with respect to the contem-
porary Christian world. Ironically it was in Abyssinia that
some of Muhammad’s first disciples, following his advice
to go to the “land of righteousness,” found tolerance and
refuge in a world dominated by Christianity.LATER MIDDLE AGES
After the fall of ACREin 1291, Guillaume Adam, the
Dominican monk who became the archbishop of Sul-
taniyah, promoted in 1317 an ultimately failed plan for a
crusade by blockading the Gulf of Aden with Abyssinian
cooperation. In the 14th century, as the Egyptian chroni-
cler al-Magrizi indicates, the Muslims were aware of and
feared this quest for the Euro-Abyssinian “great alliance
against Islam.” In the meantime Abyssinian rulers them-
selves tried to organize crusades to liberate Jerusalem. By
the 14th century, it was thought that PRESTERJOHNwas
more probably the emperor of Abyssinia. European
monarchs sought a political alliance with the Abyssinian
emperor while several popes sought his spiritual and
ecclesiastical adherence.
From the 14th to the 16th century, European leaders
were interested in Abyssinia for more mundane reasons.
John II of Portugal (r. 1481–95) wanted to take the spice
trade from Venice. Religious objectives remained impor-
tant, as demonstrated by the missions sent to Abyssinia
and the spiritual messages exchanged with its rulers. One
important motive underlying the explorations of Prince
HENRY“THENAVIGATOR” was the desire to discover a sea
route to Abyssinia.
During major religious reform in Abyssinian history,
during the reign of Emperor Zara Yagob (1434–68), rep-
resentatives of the Abyssinian monasteries of Jerusalem
arrived at the Council of Florence in 1441 to discuss the