306 Gothic art and architecture
the possibility of human REDEMPTIONthrough the Incar-
nation and Passion of Christ. The four versions seemed
uniform in intention and based on a common experience,
but clearly differed in detail. The supposed authors all
knew Jesus, although two of the evangelists, Mark and
Luke, were not apostles. A reason for their diversity was
believed to be that each began at a somewhat different
point. The main difference between the three Synoptic
Gospels and that of John was believed to be his greater
emphasis on a detailed and more spiritual account of
Christ’s teaching. All the authors recounted different mir-
acles and parables, since they were probably not wit-
nesses to all of them.
The reading of the Gospels was a fundamental aspect
of the Christian liturgy, sermons, and spiritual reading by
both the CLERGYand eventually the LAITY. All the incon-
sistency and opaqueness were rich fodder for learned
commentaries, speculation, and explanatory writing by
theologians throughout the Middle Ages.
See also APOCRYPHA AND APOCRYPHALNEW TESTA-
MENT;BIBLE;CHRISTOLOGY AND CHRISTOLOGICAL CONTRO-
VERSY; GLOSSA ORDINARIA; JEROME,SAINT; LITURGICAL
BOOKS; OFFICE, MONASTIC AND CANONICAL;VULGATE.
Further reading:“Gospel,” The Oxford Dictionary of
the Christian Church, 693–694; Graham Stanton, The
Gospels and Jesus,2d ed. (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2001).
Gothic art and architecture Gothic art and architec-
ture were complex and diverse and created over a wide
geographical area and chronological framework. In the
14th century the term Gothicexpressed a certain disdain
for styles considered barbarous and linked with the
mythical Goths. The term has remained in use to label a
multifaceted style of art that succeeded the ROMANESQUE
styles and dominated western Europe from the mid-12th
to the early 15th century in Italy and much later in
northern Europe.
ORIGINS AND SPREAD OF
GOTHIC ARCHITECTUREGothic art and architecture were born in the Île-de-
France, contemporary with and a product of the birth of
a more sophisticated school and university system, a local
prosperity brought about by a strong Capetian monarchy
centered in Paris, much better lay education, a better
understanding of classical literature, and the develop-
ment of vernacular literature.
Among the creators of this artistic style was the
abbot of SAINT-DENISnear Paris, SUGER, who read the
writings associated with DIONYSIUS THEAREOPAGITEand
their emphasis on light and a hierarchy of forms. In 1140,
he began to rebuild his abbey church, which soon exem-
plified the characteristics of Gothic architecture. The
style let in much more light from windows opening onto
the choir and nave, and the ribs that lightened the vault
and better distributed the weight of roofs and columns
allowed for thinner walls, a more spacious nave, pointed
arches, flying buttresses on the outside to carry weight
(which created soaring heights), and the opening up of
much larger windows. This style quickly spread to cathe-
drals at Sens, from 1140; at NOTRE-DAMEin Paris in
1163; at Noyon from 1150 to 1235; at CHARTRESafter
1194; at RHEIMS, finished in 1275; and at ROUEN and
AMIENSsoon thereafter. In the early 14th century, Gothic
architecture became flamboyant, with extensive decora-
tion on the outside and inside. These new architectural
forms had by then found early expressions across Europe,
in England at Durham, SALISBURY, Peterborough, YORK,
Gloucester, CANTERBURY, and later in its most classic form
in WESTMINSTER ABBEY. In Germany it was used at
Magdeburg cathedral in 1209, Strasbourg in 1240, and
COLOGNE. In Spain, it was soon employed at TOLEDOand
Burgos. In Italy, the new MENDICANT ORDERSpromoted
the development of Gothic architecture, as in the upper
basilica at ASSISIin 1253, and the communes soon fol-
lowed suit, as at SIENAin its cathedral from the 13th cen-
tury. STAINED GLASSbecame an important aspect of these
buildings.GOTHIC PAINTING AND SCULPTURE
For Gothic PAINTING, the ILLUMINATIONof manuscripts
attracted the most prestigious artists, but Italian artists
mostly preferred painting wood panels or frescoes on
church walls to creating illuminations. However, the
choice of any of these painters either northern or south-
ern to follow a neatly defined Gothic style in his work
should not be underestimated.
The evolution of Gothic sculpture began in the statue
columns of portals of these new churches. For them bibli-
cal heroes were carved as part of an architectural monu-
mentality. The sculptors used stone to express more
lifelike characteristics and human emotions such as the
sadness of DEATH, as well as the great themes of their
faith. Much of this work expressed complex doctrinal
and fundamental concepts such as the Last Judgment in
tympanums above doors. The details of this changing
style and its actual artifacts can be best followed through
the histories of its buildings and artists.
See alsoALTARS AND ALTARPIECES;ASSISI;BERRY,JOHN,
DUKE OF;CIMABUE,GIOVANNI;DUCCIO DIBUONINSEGNA;
EYCK,HUBERT VAN, ANDEYCK,JAN VAN;GENTILE DAFAB-
RIANO;GIOTTO DI BONDONE; IVORY AND IVORIES;LIM-
BOURG BROTHERS;LOUIS IX, SAINT;MARTINI,SIMONE;
MASONS AND MASONRY;MEMLING,HANS;PISANO,ANDREA;
PISANO,GIOVANNI;PISANO,NICCOLÒ;PUCELLE,JEAN;
ROSE WINDOW;SAINTE CHAPELLE OF PARIS;WEYDEN,
ROGIER VAN DER.
Further reading:Robert G. Calkins, Medieval Archi-
tecture in Western Europe: From A.D. 300 to 1500(New
York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Michael Camille,