Héloïse333Heimskringla(The circle of the world) It was a col-
lection of epic sagas or a history of the early kings of
Norway. Although no manuscript named him as the
author, it is certain that Heimskringlawas written by the
Icelandic poet SNORRISTURLUSONin the 1220s or early
1230s. The first of the sagas (the Ynglinga) traced the
descent of the Norwegian kings from a historical Odin,
through the Swedish Yngling dynasty, down to the end of
the legendary period. There followed 16 sagas of the
kings of NORWAY, from Halfdan the Black (d. ca. 880)
in the mid-ninth century and his son, Harald I Fairhair
(r. 860/880–930/940), to Magnus V (r. 1161/62–ca. 1184).
One-third of Heimskringlawas The Saga of St. Olaf,about
the ardent Christian Olaf II (r. 1015/16–1030). It was a
dramatic, convincingly characterized, and psychologi-
cally realistic depiction of the patron saint of Norway.
Much of the Heimskringlaconsisted of dramatic and
fictional reconstructions of events, so its value as a histori-
cal source remains unclear. Where it can be checked
against independent sources, it has been found to be fairly
accurate, but problematic in detail. Snorri wove several
historical traditions into a coherent narrative, making
Heimskringlaan impressive work of medieval historiogra-
phy. As a major source of Norway’s historical traditions,
Heimskringlaserved a supportive role in the Norwegian
cultural and national identity through centuries of foreign
rule after its absorption into DENMARKin 1380.
Further reading: Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla,
trans. Samuel Laing (London: Dent, 1961–64); Diana
Whaley, Heimskringla: An Introduction(London: Viking
Society for Northern Research, University College, 1991);
Sverre Bagge, Society and Politics in Snorri Sturluson’s
Heimskringla(Berkeley: University of California Press,
1991).
Heinrich Seuse SeeHENRYSUSO.
hejira SeeAL-HIJR;MUHAMMAD.
hell(theological and artistic) Medieval Christianity
took from the New Testament and traditions of Judaism the
belief in an eternal punishment in another world created
for that purpose. For Christianity the nonbaptized and
Christians who died in a state of mortal sin always went to
hell. In the City of God,Augustine dismissed the idea of a
final and universal return to HEAVENor salvation of all the
creatures of GOD. He thus gave the medieval world the doc-
trine of an assured eternity of punishment for the damned.
In early Christianity, the situation of damned souls
before the LASTJUDGMENTwas a real theological question,
but soon it was assumed that the damned souls would go
directly to hell at their death. The destiny of the damned
was immediately an eternity of torture in a real and
material infernal fire and ethos of punishment. The most
terrible type of punishment was the pain of damnation, or
the privation of God and the BEATIFIC VISION. Added to
this were psychological torments such as despair, remorse,
and jealous rage at seeing the saved already in heaven,
even before the Last Judgment. The main physical punish-
ment was fire, but worms, cold, and darkness were added
in literary and artistic representations.ARTISTIC REPRESENTATION
In art, hell was the domain of an absolute horror rather
unspeakable and barely possible to portray. During the
course of the troubled 14th century, there occurred
a sophistication, development, and diversification in its
punishments. The graphic adaptation of the penalty to the
sin being punished gave the images of hell an increased
effectiveness. This new style asserted the legitimacy of a
punishment and turned its almost entertaining spectacle
of cruelty into a moral lesson. Hell was deployed to assist
the effectiveness of pastoral care and the denunciation of
particularly common sins. It was now better adapted to
incite confession of sins in the hope of escaping the just
and horrible pains to come.
See also ALIGHIERI,DANTE;HARROWING OF HELL;
LIMBO; PREDESTINATION; PURGATORY.
Further reading:Alan E. Bernstein, The Formation of
Hell: Death and Retribution in the Ancient and Early Chris-
tian Worlds(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993);
Piero Camporesi, The Fear of Hell: Images of Damnation
and Salvation in Early Modern Europe, trans. Lucinda
Byatt (Cambridge: Polity, 1990); Eileen Gardiner,
Medieval Visions of Heaven and Hell: A Sourcebook(New
York: Garland, 1993).Héloïse (ca. 1101–1164)French noblewoman, nun
Héloïse was born in a noble family in PARISabout 1101.
In 1116 her uncle, Fulbert, a canon of Notre-Dame,
engaged the already famous ABÉLARDas her tutor. Such
an education was rare for a young girl, even among the
aristocracy. The master and his young pupil soon fell in
love. A son, Astrolabe, was born and the couple agreed to
a secret MARRIAGE. This did not appease the anger of Ful-
bert, who had Abélard castrated. Afterward Abélard
encouraged Héloïse to enter the monastery of Argenteuil,
and he became a monk at SAINT-DENISin 1118. Héloïse
saw marriage as a brake on Abélard’s ability to be a
“philosopher” and an obstacle to true love. This reaction
has been read as resistance to the church’s view of
marriage as a social institution and the main criterion of
distinction between the clergy and the LAITY.
In 1129, the abbot of Saint-Denis took control of
Argenteuil and expelled the NUNSfrom it. Abélard, who
had just been elected abbot of Saint-Gildas, offered
Héloïse his hermitage of the Paraclete in Champagne to
establish a women’s monastery. She became its abbess.
Under her direction, the Paraclete received numerous