aging 171997)]; Roland Oliver, ed., The Cambridge History of
Africa,Vol. 3, From c. 1050 to c. 1600(Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1977); Roland Oliver and
Anthony Atmore, Medieval Africa, 1250–1800, 2d ed.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
Aghlabid dynasty The Aghlabids were a Muslim
dynasty who flourished and ruled Ifriqiya, Tunisia, Sicily,
Malta, and eastern Algeria from 800 to 909. This dynasty
was centered in AL-QAYRAWANand took its name from
Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab (r. 800–812). Their four states in
AL-MAGHRIBwere dependent on the balance of political
forces within the region itself, since the ABBASIDcaliphal
government in BAGHDADwas far away and unable to
interfere. After their usurpation of power in 800, though
recognized by Baghdad for a payment of regular tribute,
the essentially independent Aghlabids devised a govern-
ment aimed at maintaining their political survival in a
land still dominated by an Arab class of large landowners,
on whom they depended for troops. The urban centers,
more ethnically mixed communities, resented the domi-
nation of the state by the old Arab elite and the heavy
taxes that they and the peasant communities were forced
to pay.
During their rule al-Qayrawan was a major center of
Islamic culture and civilization. They were responsible
for the building of the Great Mosque, which still stands
there today along with those at Tunis and Sousse. The
dynasty was successful in military ventures and its strong
fleet dominated the eastern Mediterranean, conquered
SICILYand MALTA, and almost invaded the city of Rome in
- The dynasty built impressive public hydraulic works
to carry water to the growing cities under its rule. It pro-
moted security by founding and building a series of forti-
fied monasteries, or ribats,along the coast.
RELIGIOUS OPPOSITIONDespite promoting economic prosperity and a thriving reli-
gious life, the Aghlabids were almost constantly plagued
by rebellions of soldiers and the populations of their cities.
Emphasizing Islamic religious norms allowed these groups
to articulate their grievances against the state and the Arab
ruling class. By the beginning of the ninth century such
grievances could be expressed formally when two of the
four Sunni schools of Islamic religious law, the Hanafi and
the Maliki, became established in al-Maghrib. The Hanafi
School was adopted by the Aghlabids. Religious scholars,
however, were proponents of the simpler and stricter
teachings of the Maliki School. By teaching religious law
and admonishing the rulers to adhere to its provisions in
the administration of justice, taxation, and the prohibition
of alcohol, Maliki scholars became in the 820s the pre-
sumptive defenders of the rights of the common people
against this Arab-dominated state. The last Aghlabid ruler
fled before the FATIMIDSin 909.
Further reading:Michael Brett and Werner Forman,
The Moors: Islam in the West(London: Orbis Publishing,
1980); Charles André Julien, History of North Africa:
Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco,trans. John Petrie and ed. C. C.
Stewart (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970); G.
Marçais and Joseph Schacht, “Aghlabids or banu ‘l-Agh-
lab,” Encyclopedia of Islam,1.247–250.Agincourt, Battle of Agincourt, situated in Artois in
northern France, is famous as the site of one of the prin-
cipal battles of the HUNDREDYEARS’ WARon October 25,- The English army, composed mainly of infantry
and archers and led by King HENRYV, took advantage of
the conditions of the terrain and the driving rain, which
forced the French cavalry under the constable of Albret to
dismount. The French cavalry was decimated and the
constable was killed in the battle. Thus Henry won a
decisive victory, putting northern France under English
rule. The English were then able to take over the lands of
the dead French nobles, and Henry was crowned king of
France.
Further reading: Howard Loxton, ed., The Battle
of Agincourt: A Collection of Contemporary Documents
(London: Jonathan Cape, 1966); Anne Curry, The Battle
of Agincourt: Sources and Interpretations (Woodbridge,
England: Boydell Press, 2000); Christopher Hibbert,
Agincourt(New York: Cooper Square Press, 2000); Rose-
mary Hawley Jarman, Crispin’s Day: The Glory of Agin-
court(London: Collins, 1979); John Keegan, The Face of
Battle(New York: Viking, 1976); E. F. Jacob, Henry V and
the Invasion of France(New York: Macmillan, 1950).
aging The medieval concept of aging was based on at
least four or five to seven periods of life, encompassing
infancy, childhood, youth, maturity, and old age. This
division was based on an amalgamation of classical,
Christian, and Arab sources, such as ARISTOTLE, Avicenna
(IBNSINA), Scripture, and ISIDOREof Seville, with mere
observation. According to these sources, the universe was
given by the Creator certain natural unifying laws that
governed the changing periods of life. As a reflection of
this progressive path of creation, the very spiritual, physi-
cal, intellectual, and emotional aspects of humans paral-
leled the seasons, history, and heavenly movements of the
natural world. Each era or stage possessed its own funda-
mental strengths and weaknesses. To live a balanced life,
one must establish an equilibrium appropriate for each
period. Each of the possible three to seven ages of life had
its own particular set of moral virtues and vices and
physical traits, all tied to the changing proportions of
humors and the falling amounts of heat and moisture in
the body.
Although the precise duration of each period might
vary, seven periods were usually recognized. That of
infancy, from birth to age seven, was characterized by