imam and imamah 373Genghis Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia,
1256–1353(New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York, 2003).
illumination This was the decoration, of all types,
drawn or painted by hand on manuscripts, described as
either illumination, miniature, or manuscript painting.
The decoration of a manuscript might include historic
scenes and decorative aspects such as ornamental letters,
frames, and borders. It might include all that facilitates
reading and comprehension assisted by color and design.
Illumination was done out of a desire to beautify a
manuscript and give some idea about the aesthetic pre-
tensions and intentions of authors and artists.
Using PARCHMENT, illuminators could display techni-
cal refinements and exploit color. During the Middle
Ages, manuscript illumination illustrated and explained
texts with painted scenes. In the CAROLINGIANperiod
illumination became more explicitly pedagogical, helping
transmit religious and political content by image. Illumi-
nation included more elaborate and directive devices to
facilitate reading a page or navigate through texts. Illumi-
nators used initials and color or paragraph signs that
marked line endings or subdivisions or chapters with
more complex content.
See alsoCODICOLOGY; LIMBOURG BROTHERS; PAINTING.
Further reading:J. J. G. Alexander, Medieval Illumi-
nators and Their Methods of Work(New Haven, Conn.:
Yale University Press, 1992); Michael Camille, Image on
the Edge: The Margins of Medieval Art(Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1992); Bezalel Narkiss, Illumi-
nated Hebrew Manuscripts(New York: Alpine Fine Arts
Collections, 1983).
Illyricum and the Illyrians In the Middle Ages this
was a region in the Balkan Peninsula that once comprised
PANNONIA,ALBANIA,MACEDONIA, and Dacia along the
coast of the Adriatic Sea and inland. It was divided into
two parts after 395, when JUSTINIANI transferred its capi-
tal to Justiniana Prima, a city he founded about 530 near
his birthplace. After Justinian I’s death in 565, Illyricum
suffered invasions by LOMBARDS,AVARS,SLAVS,SERBS, and
CROATS. In the seventh century many inland sites were
abandoned, including Justiniana Prima. The ninth-cen-
tury BYZANTINEthemes or military regions of Durazzo
(Dyrrachium) and THESSALONIKIwere then created out of
the former prefecture.
Further reading:John V. A. Fine, The Early Medieval
Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth
Century(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991);
John V. A. Fine, The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Sur-
vey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); J. J.
Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Mass.: B. Blackwell,
1992).
imam and imamah (supreme leadership) The Arabic
word imamdesignated the man who stood in front of
worshipers to lead ritual prayer in ISLAM. But it had a
wider and more profound meaning according to the par-
ticular belief in the imamah.That imam was to be the
supreme political and religious leader of the Muslim
community. The term was therefore usually synonymous
with caliph.The latter term was applied to the exercise of
temporal functions; the former, imam,was often limited
to religious, but not necessarily spiritual, leadership.
A fully developed SUNNI doctrine of an imamate
emerged in the 11th century. It held that a designation of
the imam was dependent on acceptance by the Muslim
community and that there could be only one imam at a
time. This person had to be descended from the tribe of
the QURAYSH, to be of legal majority, to possess the qual-
ity of good character, and to have a good knowledge of
the legal system, or sharia. His primary duty was to pro-
tect Islam and the FAITHby upholding the sharia. He
could, according to Sunni doctrine, be invested by
appointment by his predecessor or by election.
In Shiite doctrine, the imam was also a spiritual as
well as a political leader. The first imam was ALI, who
was succeeded by his sons and grandsons. Any legitimate
imam was considered to be divinely guided and immune
from SIN, and a source and storehouse of all religiousIllumination showing Solomon and Sheba from the Giant
Bible of Mainz(1452–53)(Courtesy Library of Congress)