John XXII, Pope 407some opposition on August 15/16, 1118. During the
first part of his reign, the austere John campaigned in
the Balkan Peninsula, against the nomadic Petchenegs,
winning a decisive victory in 1122. In 1129 he forced
SERBIA to acknowledge BYZANTINE lordship, having
defeated help sent by HUNGARY, Serbia’s chief ally. After
1130 he turned his attention to ANATOLIA, where he
campaigned against the Turkish rulers of central Asia
Minor. He conquered Armenian Cilicia in 1137 and
went on in 1138 to besiege ANTIOCH, forcing its prince,
Raymond of Poitiers (1099–1149) to take an oath of
fealty. John suspended the exploitative Venetian com-
mercial privileges but was eventually forced to reaffirm
them as necessary for economic well-being. His ambi-
tious, but probably unrealistic, plans to restore Byzan-
tine power throughout the Balkans, Anatolia, and the
Levant ended abruptly when he died of a poisoned
arrow, either assassinated or a victim of a freak hunting
accident on April 8, 1143.
See alsoKOMNENE,ANNA.
Further reading:John Kinnamos, Deeds of John and
Manuel Comnenus,trans. Charles M. Brand (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1976); Niketas Chroniate ̄s, O
City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Chroniate ̄s, trans.
Harry J. Magoulias (Detroit: Wayne State University
Press, 1984).
John VIII Palaiologos(1392–1448) Byzantine emperor
Born December 16/18, 1392, John became emperor in
1425, having been co-emperor since 1408. THESSALONIKI
fell to the OTTOMANSin 1430, and before his reign ended
the despotate of Morea began paying tribute to the
Ottoman sultan, MURADII. John’s attempt to get aid from
the West was contingent on a union of the two churches.
It was supposed to be accomplished early at the COUNCIL
of FERRARA-FLORENCE in 1438–39. In response, Pope
EUGENIUSIV preached a Crusade that was crushed by the
Ottomans at the Battle of Varna in 1444. Thus, the West
was incapable of saving BYZANTIUM while in CON-
STANTINOPLE John VIII (r. 1425–48) was unable to
accomplish anything to further the union of the two
churches. He died on October 30/31, 1448.
See also FILIOQUECLAUSE, DISPUTE OVER.
Further reading: Joseph Gill, Personalities of the
Council of Florence(New York: Barnes & Noble, 1964);
Kenneth M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant,
1204–1571,Vol. 2, The Fifteenth Century(Philadelphia:
American Philosophical Society, 1978).
John XXII, Pope(Jacques Duèze, d’Euse, Duèse)(ca.
1245–1334)elderly pope in Avignon
Jacques Duèze, subsequently Pope John XXII, was born
about 1245 at Cahors, FRANCE. His parents were affluent;
it has even been suggested that they belonged to the
nobility. Jacques was educated first at a DOMINICANpriory
in his native village and afterward at Montpellier. He then
went to PARISand Orléans, where he studied both LAW
and MEDICINE.
Leaving university life, Duèze was still at a loss as to
what profession to follow, but after he became a close
friend of a bishop, the young man decided to enter the
church. He probably believed that his new friend’s influ-
ence would help him advance in his clerical career. The
future pontiff had to wait a long time but in the end was
not disappointed, for in the year 1300, at the request of
Charles II of Anjou (r. 1285–1309), the king of NAPLES,
he was elevated to the episcopal see of Fréjus in France.
After finishing his studies at Paris and Orléans, he was a
professor of canon law at the University of Toulouse.
Then in 1308 he was appointed the chancellor of Naples
by Charles. Along with having connections to the
Angevin dynasty, he showed himself a cleric of fine abil-
ity in ecclesiastical business. In 1310 Pope CLEMENTV
summoned him to AVIGNONabout the legality of sup-
pressing the TEMPLARSand on the potential condemna-
tion of the memory of Pope BONIFACEVIII. Duèze was in
favor of suppressing the Templars but rejected the con-
demnation of Boniface. In 1312 Duèze was made bishop
of Porto, and four years later was elected, as an old man
of about age 70 and thus considered only as temporary
holder of the pontifical crown, as Pope John XXII on
August 7, 1316.HIS PAPACY
Early in his papacy the throne of GERMANYbecame
vacant. Louis IV of Bavaria (r. 1328–47) and Frederick
of Austria both contended for it, and Pope John
offended many by supporting Frederick (d. 1330).
Later he raised doubts about his intellectual compe-
tency by preaching an unorthodox sermon that asserted
that the souls of those who die in a state of GRACEgo
straight into Abraham’s bosom or LIMBO but do not
enjoy the BEATIFIC VISIONof the Lord until after the
Resurrection and the LAST JUDGMENT. This doctrine was
laughed at and hotly opposed by many clerics, notably
one of whom even preached against it before the pope
himself at Avignon. John retracted his theory on his
deathbed.
John was also frequently accused of avarice and of
practicing ALCHEMY. He did make great efforts to raise
money, imposing numerous new taxes unheard of before
his PAPACY. He manifested considerable ingenuity in col-
lecting money for the papacy and had no sympathy for
the ideals of radical clerical poverty common during his
reign, especially with the FRANCISCANS. The tradition that
he dabbled in alchemy reflected a common perception
and may have some basis. He did issue a stringent bull
against alchemists, but it was directed against charlatans,
not against those who were seeking the high-minded
philosophers’ stone with earnestness and aid of scientific
knowledge.