418 Justinian, Code of
years, their autocracy and the mounting burden of gov-
ernmental expense made their regime oppressive and
unpopular. The so-called Nika riots of January 13–18,
532, which had begun as rioting among the circus factions
of the HIPPODROME, grew into demands for real change in
governmental policies and finally sought to dethrone Jus-
tinian. The emperor rallied his troops under loyal gener-
als, such as BELISARIUS, and massacred the rioters.
Justinian punished the other conspirators, temporarily
squelching popular and aristocratic opposition to his rule.
IMPERIAL AMBITIONSJustinian’s long reign was marked by aggressive and
defensive wars. The accession of a new SASSANIANking,
Khosro or Chosroes I (r. 531–579) in 531 made a peace
treaty possible. The ensuing “Perpetual Peace” of 532
involved Justinian in paying a veiled tribute but freed
him for territorial reconquest in the west. Jealous of Jus-
tinian’s subsequent successes, Chosroes broke the peace
in 540 by invading SYRIA-PALESTINE and devastating
ANTIOCH. Still tied down in the west, Justinian had to
engage in a new war with Persia for most of the rest of
reign. Only in 562 was a 50-year peace treaty agreed on,
requiring even heavier tribute payments.
THE WESTHis two primary targets for conquest in the west were
Vandal North AFRICAand Ostrogothic ITA LY. The Vandal
kingdom was quickly destroyed by Justinian’s able gen-
eral Belisarius in 533–534. Two years later operations
were launched in Italy. Belisarius eventually negotiated a
short-lived settlement with the OSTROGOTHSin 540. An
Ostrogothic resurgence threatened this, so Belisarius had
to return to command in Italy. But Justinian supported
him inadequately and the war drifted indecisively until
the emperor then gave fuller backing to a new comman-
der, Narses (ca. 478–568), who defeated the Ostrogoths
decisively in two battles during 552. More warfare com-
pleted the pacification of Italy, but Italy had been brutally
ravaged by a long war that shattered prosperity and left
the peninsula open to a new Germanic invasion by the
LOMBARDSonly a few years after Justinian’s death. Despite
a rapid Vandal collapse, unruly BERBERtribes of the hills
tied down imperial forces for decades. In both regions,
the expected rapid annexation turned into an inter-
minable war that continuously drained the empire’s man-
power and money.
Justinian’s foreign relations, however, were not only
warlike. Anxious to free the empire’s commercial life from
dependency on Persian traders, he sought new TRADE
routes. His cooperation with the Christian kingdom of
ABYSSINIArealized this aim briefly. But because his wars
elsewhere strained his resources, Justinian had to rely
more and more on diplomacy or negotiation as a substi-
tute for strength. The Balkan provinces suffered most for
this juggling of priorities. Denuded of adequate defenses,
they were left exposed to new invaders, especially the
SLAVS, and soon the AVARS.LEGACY AND DIFFICULTIES
Justinian built lavishly all over the empire, including
fortresses and works of regional defense, structures
of public and practical function, buildings for urban
adornment, and especially great churches and monaster-
ies. Among his greatest buildings was his reconstruction
of the Temple of the Holy Wisdom, or HAGIASOPHIA,in
Constantinople, still a great monument of Christian
building.
Justinian initiated a total overhauling of the Roman
legal system. In the CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS,his commission-
ers distilled into a systematic exposition the basic legal
texts and the interpretational literature. This preserved
the heritage of Roman LAWand made possible its trans-
mission to later generations.
Justinian tried to end religious disunity and contro-
versy within the empire. The chief theological issue of his
day was the persistent MONOPHYSITE rejection of the
Council of CHALCEDONin 451 and regarding the nature
of Christ. For all his efforts at persecution and compro-
mise, any resolution of the issues was probably even less
possible at the end of his reign than before.
During 542–543 the worst PLAGUEbefore the 14th-
century Black Death ravaged the Mediterranean world,
leaving populations lower for generations. Theodora’s
death of cancer in 548 was a cruel personal loss to Jus-
tinian. Deteriorating Balkan defenses led to massive
incursions and exposed even the capital itself to attack.
Justinian’s death on November 14, 565, was greeted with
popular rejoicing and relief. The most famous historian
of his reign, PROCOPIUS OFCAESAREA, in his Secret History
portrayed Justinian and Theodora as virtual demons.
See also CASSIODORUS, SENATOR; OSTROGOTHS;
VANDALS; VISIGOTHS.
Further reading: Procopius, Secret History of Pro-
copius,trans. Richard Atwater (Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1963); Robert Browning, Justinian and
Theodora(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971); J. A.
S. Evans, The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Impe-
rial Power(New York: Routledge, 1996); John Moorhead,
Justinian(New York: Longman, 1994); Percy N. Ure, Jus-
tinian and His Age(New York: Penguin, 1951).Justinian, Code of (Codex Justinianus) See CORPUS
IURIS CIVILIS.just price SeeJUSTICE.just war The early church had wide influence on the
Roman State but tried to avoid the responsibilities of the
state and power. The early Christians were naturally not