24 Albigensian Crusade
intuitive conservationist. He advocated the proper use of
manure, the planting of trees to arrest soil erosion, and
the cultivation of vineyards.
Learning from the newly available works of ARISTO-
TLE, he wrote extensively on the animal world as well. His
On Animalscontains descriptions of many animal forms
and has sections on reproduction and embryology. Alber-
tus Magnus had little knowledge of internal anatomy but
presented the Aristotelian classification scheme for the
animal kingdom, taking note of the adaptations of animal
forms responding to evolving environments.
In the physical sciences and ALCHEMY, he commented
extensively on the chemical, geological, and petrological
features and stability of mineral forms. Here he followed
the Aristotelian conception of the four elements and the
four qualities, avoiding the more fanciful notions of the
alchemists. He was skeptical about the possibility of a
true transformation of any base metal into gold or silver.
Furthermore, he isolated the element arsenic, drew up a
list of about 100 minerals and their properties, and made
sound observations on fossils. His work on chemistry dis-
cussed the basic processes of sublimation, distillation,
pulverization, grinding, heating, cementing, dissolving,
coagulation, and liquefaction.
Albertus was repeatedly charged by some of his con-
temporaries with having communications with the devil
and practicing the craft of magic. Despite this, he clearly
fostered the autonomy and appropriateness of reason in
the sciences at a critical moment. His prestige and assis-
tance were of vital importance in preventing the church
from outlawing the rational study of nature as a form of
magic or necromancy. He also was instrumental in main-
taining the equilibrium of his intellectual environment
despite the aggressive forces of mysticism and dogmatic
orthodoxy.
Further reading: Albertus Magnus and Thomas
Aquinas, Albert and Thomas,trans. Simon Tugwell (New
York: Paulist Press, 1988); Étienne Gilson, Christianity
and Philosophy,trans. Ralph MacDonald (New York: Pub-
lished for the Institute of Mediaeval Studies by Sheed and
Ward, 1939); Étienne Gilson, The Spirit of Medieval Phi-
losophy,trans. A. H. C. Downes (London: Sheed and
Ward, 1936); James Weisheipel, Albertus Magnus and the
Sciences: Commemorative Essay 1980(Toronto: Pontifical
Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1980).
Albigensian Crusade SeeALBIGENSIANS ANDALBIGEN-
SIAN MOVEMENT.
Albigensians and Albigensian movement The
Albigensians were a heretical Christian sect, named after
the city of Albi in southern France. In other parts of
Europe, their counterparts were often called CATHARS.
Much of what is known of their beliefs was promulgated
by their enemies and persecutors. The sect generally
believed in the principles of Manichean dualism, which
attempted to reconcile a belief in two distinct powers, the
good and the evil, with the Christian religion. The Albi-
gensians apparently had some belief in the Old and the
New Testament but interpreted them allegorically, thus
denying Jesus’s bodily suffering. They attacked the
church for its interpretation of the Bible, a book they con-
sidered “the work of the Devil.” They rejected the value
of the sacraments and any mediating role for the clergy.
The church was not to own property or receive any
income. Their doctrine, moreover, forbade marriage, and
the eating of animal products. They recognized two
classes of the faithful, the “perfect,” or pure, who
received the sacrament of consolation (consolamentum)
and observed all the principles of the sect, and the believ-
ers, who led a normal life but would receive the consola-
mentumat some point in the future. The believers were to
live simply. The Albigensians tried to segregate them-
selves doctrinally and socially from society, creating their
own communities when they could.REPRESSION AND WAR
By the 12th century the sect had spread throughout
southern France. Repeated condemnations by church
councils and persecutions by the authorities, failed to
counter them. Some of the nobility joined the sect. By
1167 the Albigensians had created a loose federation of
communities, while teaching an authorized text, the
“Cathar Bible.” Alarmed by this, the church and the
kings of France and England, Louis VII (r. 1137–80) and
HENRYII, determined to repress the movement. In 1184
a council at Verona attacked this heresy and established
the INQUISITION to investigate suspected heretics and
take them to trial. These efforts at suppression were inef-
fective and the Albigensians gained even greater regional
sympathy and political influence. Pope INNOCENTIII at
first attempted to convert the Albigensians, appointing
monks such as St. DOMINICto special missions. This
missionary activity led to the assassination, in 1208, of
the papal legate, Peter of Castelnau. Innocent then
resolved to launch a military crusade against the Albi-
gensians, calling faithful of northern France to extirpate
them by force of arms. Led by SIMON OFMONTFORTthe
Elder, an army of French knights assembled, moved into
southern France and committed massacres, such as at
Béziers in 1208, when heretics and orthodox were indis-
criminately killed. A coalition of southern forces, led
by Peter II of Aragon (r. 1196–1216) and Raymond VI,
the count of Toulouse, fought back, but Simon won the
Battle of Muret in 1213, becoming the master of the
region until his death in 1218. The Albigensians were
not completely crushed, and soon the French crown-
prince, Louis, had to lead a new crusade. In 1229, in the
Peace of Paris, his widow settled the political aspect of
the crusade in favor of French monarchy. This settlement
led to the annexation of most of the country of Toulouse