Latin states in the East 439for the majority of conjunctions in clauses of subordina-
tion and indirect discourse.
RESTORATIONS AND RENAISSANCECHARLEMAGNE’S advisers, such as PAUL THE DEACON,
Paulinus of Aquileia (730/740–802), THEODULF, and
ALCUIN, tried to produce a linguistic restoration. Their
revived political empire had to be provided with a cor-
rect and unified language to meet the needs of a central-
ized administration and to maintain religious orthodoxy
sometimes being compromised by the clergy’s linguistic
incompetence.
The 12th century saw another revival of literary
accomplishment in Latin. A somewhat more secularized
education and search for literary fame encouraged authors
such as JOHN OFSALISBURYnot just to imitate the ancients
but to try to surpass them in style and language. The 13th
and 14th centuries saw the development of a Scholastic
and notarial Latin in THEOLOGY, LAW, and SCIENCE. Latin
with its syntax and carefully defined meanings of words
fostered the developments of abstract reasoning and logic.
Reacting to the abstruse and dry standard idioms of the
university system, PETRARCH, and especially the Floren-
tine and Italian humanists of the early 15th century such
as LEONARDOBRUNIand LORENZO VALLA, advocated a
return to a reading of ancient sources and a faithful imita-
tion of the style of the ancients.
See alsoCAROLINGIANRENAISSANCE.
Further reading:Erich Auerbach, Literary Language
and Its Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle
Ages,trans. Ralph Manheim (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1993); Charles H. Beeson, A Primer of
Medieval Latin: An Anthology of Prose and Poetry
(Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1953); Jane Chance, Medieval
Mythography: From Roman North Africa to the School of
Chartres, A.D. 433–1177(Gainesville: University Press of
Florida, 1994); Peter Godman, The Silent Masters: Latin
Literature and Its Censors in the High Middle Ages(Prince-
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000); Barbara K.
Gold, Paul Allen Miller, and Charles Platter, eds., Sex and
Gender in Medieval and Renaissance Texts: The Latin Tradi-
tion(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997);
A. G. Rigg, A History of Anglo-Latin Literature, 1066–1422
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Laurie J.
Churchill, Phyllis R. Brown, and Jane E. Jeffrey, eds.,
Women Writing Latin: From Roman Antiquity to Early Mod-
ern Europe,3 vols. (New York: Routledge, 2002).
Latin states in Greece The Fourth Crusade in 1203
and 1204 dismembered the BYZANTINE EMPIRE. Latin
states were formed: in the southeastern Balkan Peninsula
the LATINEMPIREof CONSTANTINOPLE, and the Frankish
principality of MOREAin Greece proper. Baldwin I (r.
1171–1205) of FLANDERS, then the Courtenay family,
established their state centered on Constantinople with
the assistance of VENICE. They ultimately failed to resist
the Greek emperor of Nicaea, Michael VIII Palaeologos (r.
1261–82), who retook Constantinople in 1261.
The principality of Morea grew out of the conquest of
the Peloponneses by knights mobilized by William of
Champlitte (d. 1209) and Geoffroi of VILLEHARDOUINin- In 1278 the principality was taken by the Neapoli-
tan Angevins. The local Orthodox Christians refused to be
united with an imposed Western Church. In the 14th cen-
tury the governing families could not prevent a Byzantine
reconquest completed in 1432, but without the coastal
ports held by Venice.
See alsoEPIROS AND THE DESPOTATE OF;MISTRA.
Further reading:Harold E. Lurier, trans., Crusaders
as Conquerors: The Chronicle of Morea (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1964); George T. Dennis,
Byzantium and the Franks: 1350–1420(London: Variorum
Reprints, 1982); David Jacoby, “The Latin Kingdom of
Constantinople and the Frankish States in Greece,” in
The New Cambridge Medieval History.Vol. 5, c. 1198–c.
1300,ed. David Abulafia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1999), 525–543; Aneta Ilieva, Frankish Morea,
1205–1262: Socio-Cultural Interaction between the Franks
and the Local Population(Athens: Historical Publications
St. D. Basilopoulos, 1991).
Latin states in the East The principal political result
of the CRUSADESwas the temporary creation of Latin
states, or colonies, along the western shore of the Mediter-
ranean or the Levant in SYRIAand PALESTINEafter the
First Crusade, at CYPRUSduring the Third, and in the
Balkan Peninsula after the Fourth.EDESSA
The main objective of the crusade launched by Pope
URBANII at the Council of CLERMONTin November of
1095 was to open JERUSALEMto safe Christian pilgrimage
and control of the holy places. Just how this was to be
done without colonizing, occupying, and carving out prin-
cipalities or states was unclear. The principal leaders of the
First Crusade immediately tried to create principalities for
themselves, despite the oath taken to the BYZANTINE
emperor to restore to him the territories that had once
belonged to the Byzantine Empire. Among the first of these
was EDESSA on the northern Mesopotamian plain. It
attracted few settlers from the West and depended on the
support of the Armenians and local Christians. The county
of Edessa disappeared after the capture of its capital by
Zangi (r. 1127–46), the governor of MOSULand ALEPPOin
December 1144. The Second Crusade failed to recapture it.ANTIOCH
BOHEMONDof Taranto, leader of the NORMANtroops in the
First Crusade, captured ANTIOCH IN1098, despite opposi-
tion from his fellow crusaders and Byzantine attempts to