Lull, Ramón, and Lullism 457ENTERPRISE AND COMMERCEAfter the formation in 1161 of a community of MER-
CHANTStrading frequently in GOTLAND, Lübeck’s history
was tied with that of the Hanse or HANSEATICLEAGUE. It
was dominant from 1293 and its official head by 1418.
The merchants of Lübeck were present throughout
Hanseatic enterprises, from LONDONto NOVGOROD. They
were strongly established in Scandinavia and LIVONIA,
were loaded with privileges at PRAGUE, and jealously
guarded any monopolies held by the Hanse in the trade of
northern and central Europe. Lübeck, though visited by
the PLAGUESof the mid-14th century, had 30,000 inhabi-
tants in the 15th century. It was ruled by a patriciate of
great merchants and landlords, estimated at no more than
16 percent of the population, who alone could serve on
the town council. Absorbed in commerce, Lübeck did
little to colonize and urbanize the east or around the
Baltic Sea, apart from founding the towns of Elbing,
Marienwerder, and Stockholm. A hundred towns at least
adopted the urban law of Lübeck, and its town planning
and brick architectural style were the model for a number
of Hanseatic and Prussian towns. As a commercial power,
Lübeck was protected by princes and was the guarantor of
Hanseatic commercial order. At the end of the Middle
Ages Lübeck had become the only remaining imperial free
town left on the Baltic shore east of the Elbe.
See alsoTRADE AND COMMERCE; WENDS.
Further reading: Philippe Dollinger, The German
Hansa,trans. and ed. D. S. Ault and S. H. Steinberg (Lon-
don: Macmillan, 1970); A. B. Enns, Lübeck: A Guide to the
Architecture and Art Treasures of the Hanseatic Town,4th
ed., trans. A. C. Lesiter (Lübeck: H. Scheffler, 1981).
Lucca Lucca is a city in TUSCANYbetween FLORENCE
ANDPISA. Founded in 180 B.C.E., Lucca grew outside the
old Roman walls in the LOMBARDperiod in the seventh
and eighth centuries. On the pilgrim road to ROME, it was
also the seat of a bishopric and a duchy in the Lombard
period, a position it continued to hold under the CAR-
OLINGIANS. From the 11th century, the city’s history
revolved around its opposition to PISAand loyalty to the
empire. Once under the marquesses of Tuscany, Lucca
obtained its first imperial privileges in 1082, and in the
12th century, it gave shelter to several imperial antipopes.
It fought several wars against Pisa in 1105, 1128, and
- FREDERICKI BARBAROSSAimposed a peace on the
two towns in 1181 and gave Lucca a charter of liberties.
On April 30, 1186, the emperor HENRY VI confirmed
Lucca’s jurisdictional rights over a rural domain within a
radius of six miles. At about the same time, rural noble
families moved into town and swore loyalty to the newly
formed commune, which was based on the administration
of a PODESTÀor outside judge from 1187. The prosperity
of the town was based on banking and commercial activ-
ity in the SILKtrade. Blessed with a sound and respected
coinage, Luccan bankers were present in ENGLAND,
FRANCE, and at the Holy See. It was also a rich agriculture
center for both grain crops and pastoral activities.
Lucca’s entry into a GUELFleague in 1197 was caused
by Henry VI’s betrayal and concession of important naval
rights to Pisa. After Lucca was captured by the Pisans in
1314, Castruccio Castracani (1281–1328) expelled them
in 1316 and established his own seigniorial rule over the
city. On his death in 1328, the lordship of the town was
taken by various families and foreign powers, even the
Pisans again. In the late 14th century, the Guinigi family
took over the city. A republican regime that was restored
after the fall of the Guinigi in 1430 lasted until the
French invasion of 1494.
See also BANKS AND BANKING;GUELFS AND GHI-
BELLINES.
Further reading:M. E. Bratchel, Lucca, 1430–1494:
The Reconstruction of an Italian City-Republic (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1995); Louis Green, Castruccio Castra-
cani: A Study on the Origins and Character of a Fourteenth-
Century Italian Despotism (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1986); Louis Green, Lucca under Many Masters: A Four-
teenth-Century Italian Commune in Crisis (1328–1342)
(Florence: L. S. Olschki, 1995); Roberta Martinelli, A
Renaissance Fortification System: The Walls of Lucca
(Lucca: M. Pacini Fazzi, 1996); Christine Meek, The
Commune of Lucca under Pisan Rule, 1342–1369(Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1980);
Christine Meek, Lucca, 1369–1400: Politics and Society in
an Early Renaissance City-State(Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1978); Duane J. Osheim, An Italian Lordship:
The Bishopric of Lucca in the Late Middle Ages(Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1977); Chris Wickham,
Community and Clientele in Twelfth-Century Tuscany: The
Origins of the Rural Commune in the Plain of Lucca
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978).Luitprand of Cremona SeeLIUTPRAND OFCREMONA.Lull, Ramón, and Lullism(Raymond, Llull, Lully, the
Blessed, the Enlightened Doctor) (ca. 1235–1315)
Franciscan scholar, poet, mystic
Born about 1235, he was a son of a noble family of
MAJORCA. He married Bianca Picany, by whom he had two
children. An active participant in court culture, he worked
until the age of about 30 as a lay official for the king of
Majorca. He received little education in Scholastic theo-
logical thought. In 1263, however, he underwent a pro-
found change, transformed by visions of a crucified
Christ. He decided to abandon everything in the material
world and dedicate himself to bringing about the conver-
sion of infidels, especially by means of PREACHING. He
attached himself to the DOMINICANORDER, but its head in
Iberia, RAYMOND OF PEÑAFORT, prevented him from
attending the University of PARISto study theology. Ramón