Alexander III, Pope 27culture and learning, Alcuin wrote important political
and liturgical works. He composed a number of signifi-
cant official documents, once believed to be entirely the
work of Charlemagne. These included decisions and
opinions on the difficult problems of iconoclasm and the
Spanish heresy of ADOPTIONISM. Alcuin’s new liturgical
guide prudently took into account both universally
accepted and locally observed rites. They thus served as
the reasonable basis for the new standard missal. After
serving Charlemagne for many years, Alcuin withdrew to
establish another school at the abbey of Saint Martin of
Tours, where he died on May 18, 804.
Further reading:John Cavadini, The Last Christology
in the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785–820
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993);
Eleanor Shipley Duckett, Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne:
His World and His Work(New York: Macmillan, 1951);
John Marenbon, From the Circle of Alcuin to the School of
Auxerre(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981);
Luitpold Wallach, Alcuin and Charlemagne: Studies in Car-
olingian History and Literature(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 1959).
Aleppo (Halab, Halep, Alep)Often recognized for its
great age, Aleppo was a city in SYRIAthat was inhabited
for perhaps 4,000 years. After being sacked by the SAS-
SANIANSin the sixth century and captured by KHALID IBN
AL-WALID in 636, it declined in importance until it
became the capital of the HAMDANIDSin the 10th cen-
tury. From then on it was to remain one of the major
cities of Islam until well after 1500. Saif-al-Daula (r.
945–967) managed to maintain the city’s fortunes
against the BYZANTINES, who nonetheless attacked in
962, and against the BUYIDSfrom Baghdad. The Ham-
danids eventually lost control to the FATIMIDSof Egypt
in 1004. In the last years of the 10th century there had
been a cultural revival, especially in literature, centered
in Aleppo and under the patronage of Saif-al-Daula and
his successors.
The fortunes and prestige of the city grew further in
the 12th century as it became a bulwark against crusader
expansion under the Zangi dynasty, especially Imad al-
Din Zangi (1127–46) and NUR AL-DINMUHAMMAD IBN
ZANGI (1146–73). They solidified Muslim resistance
against the crusaders with their military capacities and
skillful cultivation of the concept of JIHAD. The AYYUBIDS
took over in the 1170s under the leadership of SALADIN,
who rebuilt the citadel and made the entire city into a
great fortress. At the same time the city continued to
profit as a place of a lively trade between West and East
and gained a reputation for the quality of its glass, ceram-
ics, textiles, and metalwork.
Sacked again by the MONGOLSin 1260 and rebuilt
under the MAMLUKS of Egypt soon afterward, Aleppo
regained prosperity in the mid-14th century, as attested
by IBN BATTUTA, who visited the city in 1355 and
remarked on its impressive buildings and spaces, espe-
cially its mosques and bazaar. After this era of prosperity,
Aleppo fell victim to another raid and to occupation by
TAMERLANEin 1400, to earthquakes in 1403, and to a
serious famine in 1422. Its strategic location for trade
allowed yet another rebuilding, and Aleppo continued to
be famous for the beauty and impressiveness of its fortifi-
cations and schools or MADRASAS. The OTTOMANScap-
tured the city in 1516, and it remained a rich commercial
center for caravans long after that.
Further reading:D. W. Morray, An Ayyubid Notable
and His World: Ibn al-’‘dim and Aleppo as Portrayed in His
Biological Dictionary of People Associated with the City
(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994); Yasser Tabbaa, Constructions of
Power and Piety in Medieval Aleppo (University Park:
Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997); Suhayl
Zakkar, The Emirate of Aleppo, 1004–1094(Beirut: Dar al-
Amanah, 1971).Alexander III, Pope (Rolandino Bandinelli(?), Orlando)
(ca. 1105–1181)traditionally considered a noble, most
probably a teacher of theology or canon law, later pope
Born about 1105, the future Alexander III or Rolandino
became a canon of Pisa. He was appointed cardinal in
1150 and chancellor of the Roman church in 1153 by
Pope Eugenius III (r. 1145–53). While he was legate at
the imperial Diet of Besançon in 1157, in a discussion of
a letter of Pope ADRIAN IV, the imperial chancellor
Rainald of Dassel interpreted the word beneficiumas
“fief” instead of “benefice.” This was equivalent to sug-
gesting lay control of the offices and rights of the
church. Rolandino disagreed and spoke in favor of a
papal interpretation.
After the death of Adrian IV at Anagni on September
1, 1159, Rolandino was elected pope in Rome on Septem-
ber 7. He first refused the office. Elected by at least four
cardinal-bishops of the six, Alexander III soon reconsid-
ered and thought himself the legitimate pope. The
emperor’s decision to have the election of an antipope,
Victor IV, confirmed by a council meeting at Pavia on
February 15, 1160, provoked a schism that lasted 18
years. Alexander III sought refuge in France. A peace
between Barbarossa and the pope was concluded eventu-
ally in Venice on July 24, 1177, as the emperor kissed the
pope’s feet. After 10 years of exile, the pope entered in tri-
umph Rome in 1178. A year later, he convened one of the
most important councils of the Middle Ages, the Third
Lateran. This produced legislative work of lasting impor-
tance, especially on marriage and the doctrinal founda-
tions of papal authority. Clarity of expression and rigor of
argument assured its permanent success when 470 of its
decretals were included in the Corpus iuris canonici.How-
ever, in summer 1179 the citizens of Rome elected a new
antipope, called Innocent III, forcing Alexander to flee