476 marriage
marriage In the Middle Ages Christian theologians
saw in marriage what Saint Paul had called a sacrament
involving both Christ and the church. So over the cen-
turies it became a matter of integrating into this evolving
concept of marriage as a sacrament the ideas of a mutual
contract, a carnal union that was its consummation, and
the pleasure involved. Conjugal pleasure was sometimes
even deemed acceptable, and much of the thought about
marriage was even cast in terms of classical ideas about
friendship. Peter DAMIANsuggested that the aim of mar-
riage was an opportunity for the practice of mutual char-
ity between the spouses. It was more than a functional
union, but one oriented toward the transmission of life.
The theologian IVOof Chartres insisted on mutual love;
so without love, there was no marriage. However, virgin-
ity was always considered better. The failings of human
nature resulting form original sin, however, created a
need for marriage to prevent fornication.
DEVELOPMENT OF
MARITAL CONCEPTS IN THE WESTIn wider social terms, marriage was considered a union
between a man and a woman, enforced by a set of rules
that defined the status of the partners, gave them specific
rights and duties, and recognized any children as legiti-
mate. Marriage and even its preceding engagement or
betrothal created bonds between the two individuals
directly involved and, for the upper class, their respective
kinship groups. The church tried to control secular ideas
and doctrines about marriage, but they were always
linked with the needs, whether perceived or not, of soci-
ety. The church recognized marriage of everyone regard-
less of personal status, so including that of slaves or those
of a servile status. All bonds were to be monogamous and
were not dissolvable except under strict conditions that
in any case would have rendered the marriage invalid
from the beginning, such as a kin relationship within
prohibited degrees. God had created these unions
through the mutual consent of the partners and human
beings could not break it. There was no divorce, but
annulments could be obtained. The church set rules for
consanguinity that prohibited marriages between people
related by blood within certain degrees and also those
related by marital unions. Its ecclesiastical courts handled
legal questions about marriage itself, since it became con-
sidered a sacrament in which the consent was recognized
by God. A priest did not have to be present at the
exchange of vows, which had to be made between theA celebration of a marriage, 15th-century fresco from the school of Domenico Ghirlandaio in San Martino dei Buonomini,
Florence, Italy (Scala / Art Resource)