500 Monophysitism
LIFE UNDER THE MONGOLSAfter the massacres and destruction that generally accom-
panied these conquests, the Mongol Empire, though often
divided against itself, had a basic structure that provided
considerable security in the Mongol peace. MERCHANTS
and missionaries from the West as well as Muslims used
the routes protected by the Mongols to travel to India and
China. The initial toleration of the first Mongols was favor-
able to the Christians. The khans of Persia converted to
Islam in 1295, and in the 14th century those of the Golden
Horde and Jagatai did likewise. The Mongol Empire facili-
tated contacts among civilizations, and travelers were able
to gather geographical facts that had great influence on
later European expansions.
See alsoBUKHARA;MARCOPOLO;IL-KHANS;JOHN OF
PLANOCARPINI;MISSIONS AND MISSIONARIES,CHRISTIAN;
SELJUKTURKS OFRUM;WILLIAM OFRUBRUCK.
Further reading: Ala al-Din Ata Malek Joveyni,
1226–1283, The History of the World-Conqueror,2 vols.,
trans. John Andrew Boyle (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1958); Arthur Waley, The Secret History
of the Mongols and Other Pieces(London: Allen & Unwin,
1963); Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan, eds.,
The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy(Leiden: E. J. Brill,
1999); Robert Marshall, Storm from the East: From
Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan(Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1993); David Morgan, The Mongols
(Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1986).
Monophysitism Monophysitism was the doctrine on
the one and single nature of Christ. Somewhat prompted
by politics, it was part of the theological problem of
expressing in linguistic terms the mystery of the unity of
divinity and humanity in Christ. It stated that Christ had
but one nature.
The Monophysites were those who opposed the ter-
minological teachings of the Council of CHALCEDONin
451 of two natures and held an old formula of CYRIL OF
ALEXANDRIAand were called Monophysites only in the
seventh century. The monophysite understanding of
Christ was that the divinity of Christ was the principle of
this union and the humanity of Christ was absorbed into
it. Cyril had used texts that circulated under the names of
Athanasius and the popes Julius and Felix and believed
that the Incarnation was not merely an apparent unity of
divinity and humanity but a real and ontological, physi-
cal, or hypostatic union. The Byzantine emperors and the
patriarchies of ROME,CONSTANTINOPLE, and ANTIOCHall
took part in the disputes that lasted for a century or
more. After 518, under the emperors Justin (r. 518–527)
and JUSTINIAN, a reaffirmation of the Chalcedonian ideas
took place, and opponents of that council’s definition
were persecuted.
See alsoCHRISTOLOGY AND CHRISTOLOGICAL CONTRO-
VERSY; COPTS ANDCOPTIC ART.
Further reading:R. C. Chestnut, Three Monophysite
Christologies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976);
William H. C. Frend, The Rise of the Monophysite Move-
ment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972);
Robert V. Sellers, Two Ancient Christologies: A Study in the
Christological Thought of the Schools of Alexandria and
Antioch in the Early History of Christian Doctrine(London:
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1954);
William A. Wigram, The Separation of the Monophysites
(New York: AMS Press, 1978).Monreale (royal mountain) The BENEDICTINEmonastery
of Monreale was founded in 1174 by King WILLIAMII of
SICILY, inspired by a dream, to be the burial church of the
Hauteville family. Monreale is situated a few kilometers or
miles from PALERMO, at the end of a valley called the
Conca d’Oro. Its function was political. Its foundation
allowed the prince to escape the domain of the bishop ofThe Romanesque and ornamental bronze “Door of Paradise”
by Bonanno Pisano in 1186 from the Cathedral of Monreale
near Palermo in Sicily (Courtesy Edward English)