Netherlands 517Further reading:Stephen Gersh, Middle Platonism
and Neoplatonism: The Latin Tradition, 2 vols. (Notre
Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986); Ray-
mond Klibansky, The Continuity of the Platonic Tradition
during the Middle Ages: With a New Preface and Four Sup-
plementary Chapters, Together with Plato’s Parmenides in
the Middle Ages and the Renaissance(Munich: Kraus Inter-
national Publications, 1981); Haijo Jan Westra, ed., From
Athens to Chartres, Neoplatonism and Medieval Thought:
Studies in Honour of Edouard Jeauneau(Leiden: E. J. Brill,
1992).
Nestorianism(the Church of the East) This was a
Christian HERESY that arose in the BYZANTINE EMPIRE
from the ideas of Nestorius (ca. 381–ca. 452), the Syrian
patriarch of CONSTANTINOPLE(428–431). According to its
doctrine, there were two separate natures and persons in
the incarnate Christ, one fully divine and one fully
human. This perspective was opposed to the Orthodox
and Monophysite views that, Nestorius feared, destroyed
the full humanity of Jesus and detracted from the dignity
of GOD. The emperor summoned a general council of
bishops to adjudicate the matter at the Council of EPH-
ESUS in 431. CYRILthe bishop of Alexandria, himself
vehemently opposed to Nestorianism, convened the
council and swiftly accomplished the condemnation of
Nestorius before Eastern bishops friendly to the latter
had arrived. After these irregular proceedings, Nestorius
resigned voluntarily. Under government pressure in 433,
however, Cyril made surprising concessions, reconciling
with the more moderate of Nestorius’s allies through the
Formulary of Reunion. Nestorius was condemned again
at the COUNCIL OFEPHESUSin 431 and died in exile in
EGYPT.
Syriac-speaking Bishops in SYRIA,IRAQ, and Persia
(IRAN) refused to accept this condemnation and
founded their own church, which flourished and
expanded, surviving periodic persecutions by the Mus-
lims and MONGOLS. Through theologically static, they
sent missionaries to China and the Mongols with some
success. Some Mongols did convert, but when the
majority of them embraced ISLAMin Iran, the sect was
destined to remain small and marginal. The Byzantines
persecuted them. Many were killed and their centers
destroyed in the invasions of TAMERLANEaround 1395.
In the 15th century some of them returned to commu-
nion with the PAPACY, but others did not and survive to
this day.
See also CHRISTOLOGY AND CHRISTOLOGICAL CON-
TROVERSY.
Further reading:Nestorius, The Bazaar of Heraclei-
des,trans. G. R. Driver and Leonard Hodgson (New York:
AMS Press, 1978; Luise Abramowski and Alan E. Good-
man, eds. and trans., A Nestorian Collection of Christologi-
cal Texts, Cambridge University Library Ms. Oriental 1319
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972); James F.
Bethune-Baker, Nestorius and His Teaching: A Fresh Exam-
ination of the Evidence(Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1908); Friedrich Loofs, Nestorius and His Place in
the History of Christian Doctrine(1914; reprint, New York:
B. Franklin, 1975).Nestorius SeeNESTORIANISM.Netherlands In the Middle Ages the Low Countries
or Netherlands comprised the regions around the
Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt River estuaries. This
included present-day HOLLAND,BELGIUM,LUXEMBOURG,
and parts of GERMANYand FRANCE, which had been
divided into several counties, duchies, and principali-
ties with a prosperous and widespread urban life during
the Middle Ages.
From the late fifth century, the region of the Nether-
lands was under the century of the FRANKS. A linguistic
frontier between Romance-speaking and Germanic-
speaking regions was established during this period.
Christianization, which had begun under the Romans,
was slowed by the Frankish invasions, but was completed
during the seventh century.A FLOURISHING AGE
In the eighth century, the Carolingians ushered in a
period of prosperity. CHARLEMAGNEsubdued the Frisians
and SAXONSand divided the area into counties, where a
count represented the ruler as a judge and a military
commander. After the TREATY OFVERDUNin 843, all the
territories on the left bank of the Scheldt were attached to
West Francia, the future France, and all the territories on
the right bank slowly became part of the German Empire.
On both sides of the Scheldt, the old administrative dis-
tricts evolved into principalities, where counts remained
marginally attached by feudal ties to the rulers of France
and Germany, respectively. The later success of the towns
of this region created an abundant source of artistic
patronage and expanded horizons for various dynastic
families throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. From the
11th century, its history must be followed through that of
its cities, counties, and rulers.
See alsoBALDWINI OFFLANDERS;BELGIUM;BRABANT,
DUCHY OF;BRUGES;BURGUNDY;EYCK,HUBERT VAN, AND
EYCK, JANVAN; FLANDERS AND THELOWCOUNTRIES; FRISIA;
GHENT;PHILIP THEGOOD;WEYDEN,ROGIER VAN DER.
Further reading:Willem Pieter Blockmans and Wal-
ter Prevenier, The Promised Lands: The Low Countries
under Burgundian Rule, 1369–1530,trans. Elizabeth Fack-
elman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
1999); H. A. Heidinga and H. H. van Regteren Altena,
eds., Medemblik and Monnickendam: Aspects of Medieval
Urbanization in Northern Holland(Amsterdam: Univer-
siteit van Amsterdam, Albert Egges van Giffen Institut