Paradise 555After the stretched form was drained, it was placed
between layers of felt and pressed to remove the water.
The resulting sheets were hung from lines for drying.
With one side smooth and the other rougher, the sheets
were then polished to produce a smooth surface and seal
the pores of the paper, making it more receptive to ink.
PROLIFERATION OF USEPaper was cheaper than PARCHMENT to produce and
therefore, in the 13th century, quickly supplanted it for
administrative and legal documents. Such a light and
cheap material led to the increase in archival and
bureaucratic collections from the 14th century. It thus
made the work of bureaucracies easier and capable of
utilizing past documents and precedents. It made books
marginally less expensive to produce, initially and espe-
cially after when printing was developed in the 15th
century. The more deluxe manuscripts continued to be
written on parchment.
See alsoARCHIVES AND ARCHIVAL INSTITUTIONS; CODI-
COLOGY; PRINTING, ORIGINS OF.
Further reading:Jonathan M. Bloom, Paper before
Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002); I. P. Leif,
An International Sourcebook of Paper History (Hamden,
Conn.: Archon, 1978); E. J. Labarre, Dictionary and Ency-
clopedia of Paper and Paper-Making: With Equivalents of the
Technical Terms in French, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish
& Swedish(Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger, 1967).
papyrus and papyrology Papyrus as a writing mate-
rial was made from Cyperus papyrus,a plant that grew in
the lower region of Mesopotamia, in SYRIA, in eastern
SICILY, and especially in the Nile delta of EGYPT. Papyrus
was the medium for written documents in the ancient
world. Because of its fragility, only a handful of rolls sur-
vived from the many produced. Smaller pieces exist in
the thousands. Most of them were preserved in the warm
and dry climate of Egypt. For manuscript books, parch-
ment in the form of codices, shaped as our books are,
replaced papyrus as early as the fourth century.
MANUFACTURE AND LATER USEThe manufacture of papyrus involved cutting the pith of
the plant stem into ribbons, which were impregnated
with water on a table. A first layer was set vertically and a
second one horizontally. They were stuck together with a
paste made of millet and water. This sheet was pressed,
lightly beaten, and rinsed to eliminate surplus paste. It
was then dried in the sun and its surface was polished.
The resulting sheets were square and limited to 10
inches in width and 11 inches in height. They were
joined by a border to one another to form a roll made up
of 20 or so of them, measuring 20 to 40 meters long (or
70 to 100 feet). Writing was usually done only on one
side, the inner face of the roll, but could also be on the
reverse side. Papyrus continued to be used for documents
in western Europe even after the banning of the export of
papyrus from Egypt by the ARABSin 692. The papal chan-
cellery used it until the 11th century. By the 14th century,
except in the case of formal and ornamental documents,
paper largely replaced papyrus as a medium for transmit-
ting the written word.
See alsoCODICOLOGY; PALEOGRAPHY; PARLIAMENT.
Further reading:Nabia Abbott, Studies in Arabic Lit-
erary Papyri,3 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1957–1972); Roger S. Bagnall, Reading Papyri,
Writing Ancient History (London: Routledge, 1995);
Naphtali Lewis, Papyrus in Classical Antiquity(Oxford:
Claredon Press, 1974); R. B. Parkinson, Papyrus(Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1995); E. G. Turner, The Typol-
ogy of the Early Codex(Philadelphia: University of Penn-
sylvania Press, 1977).Paradise The word paradise was of Persian origin
(pairidaeza). It became the Hebrew word for an “orchar d,
a park, or an enclosed garden,” rather close to the Sume-
rian concept and word, eden.In the LATINof the VULGATE
version of the BIBLE, it was called Paradisus.This became
the Garden of Eden of Adam and Eve, with rich vegeta-
tion, watered by four rivers, reflecting the presence of
GOD, and human mastery over animals. DEATHwas not
present.FURTHER MEANINGS OF PARADISE
Another paradise was eschatological, or a place or state
where the SOULSof the just enjoyed eternal happiness
with GOD, possibly in the Garden of Eden. There the just
would receive the reward promised them and enjoy eter-
nal happiness while contemplating God. There were
many disputes and discussions about this Paradise during
the Middle Ages. Questions were asked about the nature
of Paradise, whether material or spiritual, and its loca-
tion. Another was about whether souls separated from
bodies had access to the BEATIFIC VISIONuntil the end of
time. Theologians at the University of PARISdecided that
the blessed see the divine essence immediately. This idea
was reaffirmed in the 14th century.
Another Paradise was perhaps on earth, even the
church on earth. For monks, it might mean the CLOISTER,
an anticipation of the heavenly life. There was also a
belief in an earthly location for the Garden of Eden some-
where. Such a concept appeared in the writings of MARCO
POLO, John MANDEVILLE, and Christopher COLUMBUS.THE MUSLIM CONCEPTION
Paradise, or al-Jannah(Arabic) or firdaws(Persian) for
Muslims, was the place or garden of reward for dead
Muslims. It included enjoyable food, drink, and compan-
ionship. Located under the throne of God, it was different