Patrick, Saint 561a peaceful agreement on the INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY
somewhat favorable to the PAPACYwith the royal govern-
ments of FRANCE and ENGLAND. The kings agreed to
renounce rights of investiture but retained the right to
receive homage or oaths of loyalty from bishops before
their investiture. In the discussions at Sutri near Rome
before Henry’s coronation in 1111, Henry V reciprocally
reneged on his promises. Paschal proposed as a solution
that the papacy renounce rights on the royal temporali-
ties or regalia in exchange for a renunciation by the
emperor of his rights of investiture of bishops and abbots,
or much control over the succession to ecclesiastical
office. German churches could still levy tithes and receive
private donations. The German episcopate quickly
refused to cooperate and broke up a coronation ceremony
on February 12, 1111. Henry then had the pope arrested
and tried to oblige Paschal to invest him with the impe-
rial staff and ring and crown him at Old Saint Peter’s in
Rome. The pope refused and was imprisoned; eventually
he abjectly agreed to crown him on April 13, 1111, only
to revoke this agreement, the Privilege of Mammolo,
when he was released from prison. A council in 1116
confirmed Paschal’s revocation in 1116 and an imperial
army marched on Rome in 1117. Paschal fled into exile
in Benevento during the ensuing riots.
Paschal sponsored a CRUSADE that attacked the
Byzantines rather than the Muslims in 1105. Despite the
considerable recrimination that resulted, the Byzantine
emperor, ALEXIOS I, proposed a union of the two
churches in 1112. It floundered on Paschal’s strong
demand for recognition of papal supremacy. Paschal
returned to Rome in disappointment in 1118 and died a
few days later, on January 21. He was buried secretly in
Castel Sant’ Angelo with Rome under the control of the
emperor.
See alsoGREGORIAN REFORM; INVESTITURECONTRO-
VERSY ORDISPUTES.
Further reading:Uta-Renate Blumenthal, The Early
Councils of Pope Paschal II, 1100–1110(Toronto: Pontif-
ical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1978); I. S. Robin-
son, Authority and Resistance in the Investiture Contest:
The Polemical Literature of the Late Eleventh Century
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1978.)
Passover (Pesah) Passover during the Middle Ages
was the Jewish festival observed every spring to celebrate
the liberation of the Children of Israel from Egyptian
bondage, as related in Exodus 12. According to the
ancient prescription, a lamb was to be slain in each
Hebrew household and its blood sprinkled on lintel and
doorposts to commemorate the initial act, which spared
firstborn Hebrew males from death. Instead, the Bible
related that the firstborn sons of the Egyptians were
slain. This Tenth Plague imposed on the Egyptians by
the Hebrew God compelled the pharaoh to free the
Israelite slaves from bondage. The Lord “passed over”
the Hebrew houses marked by the blood of the sacrificed
lamb. According to Deuteronomy 16, after the initial
event, the sacrifice was performed at the Temple. The
eating of this Paschal lamb was associated with the
ancient sacrifice.
There have been theories about the festival’s origins
in nomadic practices or agricultural rites for beginning a
harvest or simply a holiday to celebrate the arrival of
spring. Passover became the principal Jewish festival of
the year, celebrated for eight days from the night of 14/15
Nisan. After the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E., the
Jews continued to observe the feast, omitting the sacrifice
of a lamb, using only a bone in its place. The later details
of the observance were recorded in the Mishnah tractate
Pesahim.GOOD FRIDAY
The Last Supper of Christ with his apostles on the night
before he was crucified was probably a Passover meal.
The Eucharist was instituted at Passover time, and Chris-
tian writers stressed that the death of Christ was the ful-
fillment of the sacrifice foreshadowed by Passover. It is
likely that the earliest celebrations of the Christian Easter
and the Paschal Vigil Service developed from the Jewish
Passover rite. The account of the events in Exodus has
traditionally been read at the services.
Further reading: Baruch M. Bokser, The Origins
of the Seder: The Passover Rite and Early Rabbinic
Judaism (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984); Paul F. Bradshaw and Lawrence A. Hoffman, eds.
Passover and Easter: Origin and History to Modern Times
(Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press,
1999); Theodor Herzl Gaster, Passover, Its History and
Traditions(1949; reprint, Westport, Conn.: Gr eenwood
Press, 1984).pastoral care SeeMENDICANT ORDERS; MISSIONS AND
MISSIONARIES; CHRISTIAN; PAGANISM ANDCHRISTIANIZATION;
PREACHING AND PREACHERS.pasture and rights of pasture See AGRICULTURE;
PEASANTRY.Patrick, Saint (ca. 389–ca. 461)fifth-century legendary
apostle of Ireland
Patrick was the only Romano-British citizen who left a
significant account of his life. His Confessioand Letter to
the Soldiers of Coroticus,both in LATIN, were among the
earliest documents known to have been written in IRE-
LAND. Yet little is reliably known of Patrick’s life, and
information must be gleaned from his own writings,
though these were overwhelmingly self-reflectively hagio-
graphical in nature. These events were later elaborated in