566 Pelagianism
See alsoPHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY; SCHOLASTICISM
ANDSCHOLASTIC METHOD; UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS.
Further reading:Leonard E. Boyle, Medieval Latin
Paleography: A Bibliographical Introduction(Toronto: Uni-
versity of Toronto Press, 1984), 267–269, 312–313.
Pelagianism Pelagianism was a fourth- and fifth-century
Christian HERESY, according to which humankind won
SALVATIONthrough its own efforts, without the help of
divine GRACE. One could win grace by one’s efforts. It
took its name from PELAGIUS, a British scholar who set-
tled in ROMEin the 380s. The doctrine was attacked by
the church, which perceived such ideas as dangerous to
its role in the administration of sacraments as instru-
ments of divine grace. Such ideas eliminated the need for
assistance by the clergy as mediators in Christian FAITH
and practice. This heresy’s chief adversary was AUGUSTINE
of Hippo, who, among several others, brought about its
condemnation in 415. Prosper of Aquitaine (ca. 390–after
455) tried to defend Pelagian ideas, which initially were
influential in the East. But they were condemned again by
Pope Innocent I (r. 401–417) in 417. Many believers in
Pelagianism retired to SPAIN, where they enjoyed a certain
degree of liberty under the VISIGOTHS. The movement
itself disappeared in the sixth century, but the ideas con-
tinued to be discussed.
Further reading:Augustine, Four Anti-Pelagian Writ-
ings,trans. John A. Mourant and William J. Collinge
(Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press,
1992); Gerald Bonner, Church and Faith in the Patristic
Tradition: Augustine, Pelagianism, and Early Christian
Northumbria(Brookfield: Variorum, 1996).
Pelagius(ca. 357–ca. 418) monk, theologian
Probably of British origin, Pelagius arrived in about 380
in ROME, where he began to teach. By 410 he had moved
to AFRICA, where his views were opposed by AUGUSTINE
in 411. According to Pelagius, the human will was com-
pletely free, capable of good or evil. Divine GRACEwas
externally given according to one’s earned merits, its
purpose merely to facilitate what the will could do by
itself. Adam’s SIN, or original sin, was purely personal
and had no effect on the rest of humanity. All humanity
did not bear the guilt of original sin. DEATHwas not a
punishment for sin but a necessary aspect of human
nature.
Pelagius created a THEOLOGY vindicating Christian
ASCETICISMagainst the charge of MANICHAEISMby empha-
sizing human freedom to choose good. Since all were
born without original sin, there was no need for infant
baptism. PRAYERfor the conversion of others was hope-
less since it could not help them. REDEMPTIONcarried out
by Christ had no effect except as an example. This
became a widespread movement, not especially tied to
Pelagius himself.
OPPOSITION
All these ideas produced a torrent of or thodox opposition
and the promotion of Roman hegemony. Augustine in 412,
OROSIUSin 415, and JEROMEin 415 all attempted refuta-
tions. A conference of African bishops persuaded Pope
Innocent I (r. 401–417) in 417 to excommunicate Pelagius
and denounce his views. However, later that year the
Greek pope and saint Zosimus I (r. 417–418) reopened the
case and accepted him back into the church. The emperor
Honorius (r. 395–423), with papal support, exiled Pelagius
from Rome on April 30, 418, because of his renewed
heretical teaching. At the Sixteenth Council of Carthage,
more than 200 African bishops condemned his teaching. A
council of ANTIOCHexpelled him from PALESTINE, where
he had taken refuge, the following year. Pelagius himself
did not try to defend these ideas much himself. He disap-
peared from history and probably died, perhaps in EGYPT,
soon after the condemnations of 418. Others did try to
defend these ideas on free will for the next few decades,
especially in Britain. Such ideas continued to surface
throughout the Middle Ages and returned to full bloom in
the reforming movements of the 16th century.
See alsoGRACE; PREDESTINATION.
Further reading:Pelagius, The Letters of Pelagius and
His Followers,ed. and trans. B. R. Rees (Woodbridge:
Boydell Press, 1991); John Ferguson, Pelagius: A Histori-
cal and Theological Study(New York: AMS Press, 1978);
B. R. Rees, Pelagius: Life and Letters(Rochester, N.Y.: Boy-
dell Press, 1998).Peloponnese SeeMOREA, CHRONICLEOF, AND DESPOT OF.penance SeeSEVEN SACRAMENTS.Penitentials Penitentials, or Libri paenitentiales,were
texts containing lists of sins. For each sin, moreover,
there were corresponding penances to be assigned to
truly penitent sinners who had to perform them volun-
tarily. Compiled for the use of confessors in private
penance, they were particularly popular in the Celtic
church, whose penitential tradition sought correction
and improvement, not simple punishment. Most of these
texts in manuscripts circulated anonymously or were
linked with famous and reputable authors. The earliest
examples appeared in IRELANDand WALESin the sixth
century. COLUMBANintroduced these ideas and lists to
the Continent and Anglo-Saxon England in the first half
of the seventh century. By the eighth century, Irish MIS-
SIONS and missionaries had further spread the use of
Penitentials.
The concept of establishing specific expiating penal-
ties for specific sins was probably based on such practices
in barbarian law codes. The principal act of penance
advised in these Penitentials was the FAST, which could