574 philosophy and theology
He associated himself frequently with a proposed
CRUSADEbut never made any real efforts either to under-
take one personally or support those who did. He sup-
ported some outstanding artists and writers of his time,
such as Jan Van EYCK, his court painter. A great patron of
the arts, he collected and commissioned illuminated
manuscripts, tapestries, and PAINTINGS. He died on June
15, 1467.
Further reading:Joseph Calmette, The Golden Age of
Burgundy: The Magnificent Dukes and Their Courts,trans.
Doreen Weightman (1962; reprint New York: W. W. Nor-
ton, 1963); Otto Cartellieri, The Court of Burgundy: Stud-
ies in the History of Civilization(London: Kegan Paul,
1929); William R. Tyler, Dijon and the Valois Dukes of Bur-
gundy(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971);
Richard Vaughan, Philip the Good: The Apogee of Burgundy
(New York: Barnes & Noble, 1970); Richard Vaughan,
Valois Burgundy(Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1975).
philosophy and theology The reconciliation of phi-
losophy, a love of and search for wisdom, and theology,
true doctrine seeking GOD, was always a main concern
for the exclusive, monotheistic religions of Christianity,
ISLAM, and JUDAISM. Philosophers and theologians often
had to reconcile reason or rational speculation, FAITH,
and revelation. This difficulty became even more acute as
the ideas and culture of the classical pagans, especially
the Greeks, became more accessible.
FINER POINTS OF COMPARISON
AND RECONCILIATIONThere always had to be a theological aspect and develop-
ment of medieval speculation. Orthodoxy was always to be
maintained and defended. Philosophy itself had three
aspects, all with theological implications: Moral philoso-
phy dealt with action; natural philosophy was reserved for
theory; rational philosophy distinguished the true from the
false. Despite a great diversity of approaches and concep-
tions, medieval philosophy was a specific form of knowl-
edge that was distinguished by its method and unique
foundation. It was a work of reason, and its universal
application was rarely questioned in the Middle Ages.
When these methods were applied to theological
questions there were, however, always concerns about
reconciling reason with faith. At the same time there were
interaction and exchange among the philosophers and
theologians of all three of these religions, particularly
when they shared accurate texts and debated one
another. In the later Middle Ages and RENAISSANCE, more
new texts entered Europe with the increased interest in
classical writers and cultures.
THE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVEThese problems were of less importance in Islam, in
which philosophy was more marginalized and called
Falsafa.This concept tended to oppose KALAM,which
served the purposes of the revealed law. Falsafawas
interested in apologetic theology, methodology of LAW,
mystical speculation, ethics, reflection on language, and
the lessons of history. It never had official sanction and
was often even linked with HERESY and heterodoxy.
Greek philosophers were well known, especially ARISTO-
TLEand the NEOPLATONISTS. The SUNNAlinked it with
SHIAand speculation, and thus found it antithetical to
Islam.
See also AQUINAS,THOMAS,SAINT;ARISTOTLE AND
ARISTOTELIANISM IN THE MIDDLE AGES;AUGUSTINE OF
HIPPO,SAINT;BOETHIUS;BONAVENTURE,SAINT;AL-GHAZALI;
IBNRUSHD;ISLAM;JEWS ANDJUDAISM;JUDAH BENSAMUEL
HALEVI;MAIMONIDES,MOSES; NOMINALISM;PLATO AND
PLATONISM; REALISM;SCHOLASTICISM AND SCHOLASTIC
METHOD; UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS.
Further reading:Brian P. Copenhaver and Charles
B. Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1992); Henry Corbin, History of
Islamic Philosophy, trans. Liadain Sherrard (1964;
reprint, London: Kegan Paul International, 1993); Éti-
enne Gilson, Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages
(New York: Charles Scribners’s Sons, 1938); Étienne
Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle
Ages(New York: Random House, 1955); Isaac Husik, A
History of Jewish Philosophy(1941; reprint, Mineola,
N.Y.: Dover Publications, 2002); Norman Kretzmann,
Anthony Kenny, Jan Pinborg, and Eleonore Stump, eds.,
The Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy:
From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Disintegration of
Scholasticism, 1100–1600(Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1982); Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver
Leaman, eds., History of Islamic Philosophy, 2 vols.
(New York: Routledge, 1996).Photian Schism SeePHOTIOSI THEGREAT,SAINT.Photios I the Great, Saint(Photius)(ca. 810–ca.
893)patriarch of Constantinople
Photios was born in CONSTANTINOPLEabout 810 of a
noble family, the nephew of Patriarch Tarasios (r. 784–
806). After the restoration of Orthodoxy during the Icon-
oclastic controversy and following a career, he was in
charge of the imperial chancery. When the patriarch Igna-
tios (r. 847–858) was banished, the emperor Michael III
the Drunkard (r. 842–867) replaced him with Photios.
After successfully becoming a cleric in three days, he was
consecrated patriarch on Christmas of 858. He soon held
a synod, in early 859, that confirmed the deposition of
Ignatios and the exile of his supporters. This was not an
end of this problem which troubled the Byzantine Church
until the end of the ninth century.
In 867, the new emperor, BASILI, restored Ignatios,
called a council at Constantinople (869–870) to approve