1. MedievWorld1_fm_4pp.qxd

Psalter 603

York: T. Nelson, 1963); Yves Renouard, Avignon Papacy,
1305–1403,trans. Denis Bethell (London: Faber, 1970).

Prudentius(Aurelius Prudentius Clemens)(ca. 348–
ca. 410)Christian Latin poet
Almost all knowledge of Prudentius’s life has to be based
on his own writings. He was born a Christian in Spain
about 348 and as an adult practiced law. After a success-
ful career as a civil administrator, in which he rose to a
position at the imperial court, he decided to devote him-
self to composing didactic Christian poetry and to writ-
ing about other ecclesiastical and theological matters. He
published most of this poetry in a collection in 405. It
showed a close acquaintance with classical Latin poetry.

OTHER WORKS

His work consisted of treatises in several genres. One was
his lyrical Hymns for Every Day,made up of 12 poems, six
for use at particular hours of the day and six for occa-
sional use. His didactic The Divinity of Christtreated the
nature of Christ, while The Origin of Sinwas aimed at the
Gnostic errors and the teachings of the the second-
century heretic Marcion (d. ca. 154). The Spiritual Com-
bat (Pyscomachia) was his most popular work in the
Middle Ages. It was allegorical, describing combat
between the personified VIRTUESand the vices. His tract
Against Symmachusconcerned the controversy over the
removal of the altar of Victory, a great symbol of pagan-
ism, from the Roman senate house in 382. His arguments
were similar to those of AMBROSEof Milan, especially in
their ideas that the empire might now incorporate every-
one as one people. It ended with an appeal to the
emperor Honorius (r. 395–423) to end the gladiatorial
games that still occurred. He also wrote hymns about
Spanish and Italian martyrs and sets of verses linked to
specific scenes from Scripture. He died about 410.
See alsoBREVIARY; HYMNS, HYMNALS, AND HYMNOLOGY.
Further reading:Prudentius, The Poems of Pruden-
tius,trans. M. Clement Eagan, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.:
Catholic University of America Press, 1962); Martha A.
Malamud, A Poetics of Transformation: Prudentius and
Classical Mythology (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Press, 1989); Anne-Marie Palmer, Prudentius on the Mar-
tyrs(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989).

Prussia Medieval Prussia was a region on the southern
coast of the Baltic Sea, between the Vistula and Niemen
Rivers and inhabited from the sixth century by the Prus-
sian tribes, related to the Lithuanians. Despite their con-
tacts with Christian POLANDfrom the 11th and 12th
centuries, they preserved their tribal structure and
remained pagan. In 1220, the emperor FREDERICK II,
urged the TEUTONICKNIGHTSand their grand master,
Hermann of Salza (d. 1239), to invade, conquer, and
Christianize Prussia. Consequently the Prussians were

forcibly converted. Those who resisted were killed. In

their desire to control the region, the Teutonic Order

introduced German settlers into Prussia. The Teutonic

Knights expanded their control during the 13th century,

both along the Baltic coast toward LIVONIAand Pomera-

nia and to the south. This expansionary process of Ger-

manization and the economic activity of the HANSEATIC

LEAGUEyielded prosperity and led to the establishment of

cities. These urban centers in the 14th century sought

communal privileges. Conflict between the cities and the

order weakened the power of the knights, and in the

early 15th century Polish kings intervened. In 1410 King

Ladislas II (r. 1399–1434) defeated the knights at Tan-

nenberg. Prussia after that was tied to the emergence of

Brandenbury and the HOHENZOLLERNdynasty.

See alsoLITHUANIA.

Further reading:Michael Burleigh, Prussian Society

and the German Order: An Aristocratic Corporation in Cri-

sis c. 1410–1466 (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1984); F. L. Carsten, The Origins of Prussia

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954); Andrzej Nowakowski,

Arms and Armour in the Medieval Teutonic Order’ s State in

Prussia, trans, Maria Abramowicz (Lódz: Oficyna

Naukowa MS, 1994); William L. Urban, The Prussian

Crusade(Lanham, Md.: University of America, 1980);

Stanislaw Zajaczkowski, Rise and Fall of the Teutonic

Order in Prussia(London: J. S. Bergson, 1935).

Psalter The traditional medieval Psalter was a collec-

tion of 150 lyric poems from the BIBLE, probably com-

posed between the 10th and third centuries B.C.E.

Although originally written in Hebrew, the contents were

translated into Latin using the Greek Septuagint version

of the texts. These poems were well adapted to encourage

meditation. The Psalter became a liturgical book used by

monks to be read or heard as part of the daily OFFICE,as

had been defined by the Rule of Saint BENEDICT. In the

Middle Ages, monastic life involved an almost continual

reading of the Psalter.

BIBLICAL AND LITURGICAL PSALTERS

From the early Middle Ages, a distinction developed

between the biblical Psalter and the liturgical Psalter. The

former retained the biblical version of the Psalter, the

liturgical Psalter had seven subdivisions that corre-

sponded to each day of the week. During the Carolingian

period, the liturgical Psalter was enriched with HYMNS,

ANTIPHONS, canticles, and prayers, all forming the core of

the BREVIARY. From 1100, new collections were made and

became more specialized, created for night offices, morn-

ing hours, or daytime hours.

ILLUSTRATION AND DECORATION

Throughout the Middle Ages, Psalters were also viewed

as luxurious books and were decorated. In both the East