42 Anglo-Norman language and literature
throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. The oldest sur-
viving poems in Latin by an Anglo-Saxon are by the
learned Aldhelm (ca. 640–ca. 709), a monk of Malmes-
bury and bishop of Sherborne. His work ranges from
short riddles up to a 3,000-line poem on the celibate life
(On Virginity). Many well-known Anglo-Saxons before
the conquest in 1066 wrote poems that survive, such as
BEDE’Shymn on Judgment Day, the missionary BONIFACE’s
collection of riddles, and ALCUIN’s philosophical lament
on the destruction of Lindisfarne by the VIKINGS. Other
kinds of poetry for specific occasions, such as for epi-
taphs, church dedications, and monumental inscriptions,
also survive. They also composed metrical histories, litur-
gical hymns, biographies of saints, and prayers.
The NORMANConquest in 1066 increased ENGLAND’s
contact with the wider cultural revivals of the 12th and
13th centuries. The older traditional hymns and liturgical
poems were increasingly supplemented by classically
inspired collections of verse.
The arrival of the Franciscans and Dominicans in the
early 13th century introduced new religious themes and
ideas about poets. Poems then often revolved around
devotion to the Blessed Virgin and political events and
exploits. This typical mendicant piety continued to be
expressed in verse in the 14th century, especially in verse
inspired by religious mysticism. Latin poetry was
replaced by vernacular and Middle English from the mid-
14th century. For example, CHAUCERleft no Latin verse,
although his contemporary John GOWER composed
works in Latin, Anglo-Norman French, and English.
See alsoRICHARDROLLE.
Further reading:Rosalind C. Love, trans. and ed.,
Three Eleventh-Century Anglo-Latin Saints’ Lives: Vita S.
Birini, Vita et Miracula S. Kenelmi, and Vita S. Rumwoldi
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996); W. F. Bolton, A History
of Anglo-Latin Literature, 597–1066 (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1967); A. G. Rigg, A History
of Anglo-Latin Literature, 1066–1422(Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1992.
Anglo-Norman language and literature Anglo-
Normanis the French dialect written and spoken in the
British Isles from WILLIAMI’s conquest in 1066 until
the early 15th century, being the official language of
the English court until the reign of King Henry IV
(1399–1413). Anglo-Norman did not replace English
among the nobility or among the other sectors of the pop-
ulation. It is difficult to measure the relative use of the
English and Anglo-Norman languages in everyday par-
lance. Anglo-Norman was used in commercial transac-
tions, in drawing up of legal acts, and in official
documents of the royal administration during the 13th
century. Instruction and discussion in the universities
continued in French and Latin until the mid-14th century.
On the other hand, Anglo-Norman did have a long life as
a prestigious language for the educated and cultivated
English elite, being something of a mark of social prestige.
The Anglo-Norman literature of the 12th to 15th
centuries is full of moral, religious, and didactic works.
Annals or histories were written in Anglo-Norman, as
were saints’ lives. There were vernacular adaptations from
Latin biographies and hagiographical material, such as
for the Lives of Saint EDWARD THECONFESSORand Saint
Thomas BECKET. Prompted by the pastoral decrees of the
Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 and the Council of
Oxford in 1222, the output of literature for the religious
instruction of the laity and in promotion of annual con-
fession increased, some in Anglo-Norman. There also
appeared Anglo-Norman manuals, didactic treatises, alle-
gorical poems, chronicles, romances, and FABLIAUXuntil
the 15th century, when English became the medium for
most of these kinds of works.
See alsoANGLO-SAXONCHRONICLES.
Further reading:“Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,” Medieval
England,44–48; Jean Blacker, The Faces of Time: Portrayal
of the Past in Old French and Latin Historical Narrative of
the Anglo-Norman Regnum(Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1994); M. Dominica Legge, Anglo-Norman Litera-
ture and Its Background(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963).Anglo-Saxon Chronicles The collections of annalis-
tic compilations, known as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles
are a useful source for the political history of the Anglo-
Saxon period, and of import to scholars of manuscripts,
philologists, and literary scholars. The earliest version of
the chronicles extant today is from the early 890s, depen-
dent on now-lost annals and records dating from earlier
periods. It was subsequently considerably extended, and
some versions continued well after the conquest of 1066
and were written in Middle English. The first compilation
and its extensions provided source material for a number
of later medieval historians writing in Latin and in
ANGLO-NORMAN.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles exist in seven
manuscript versions, each with its own peculiar features.
Scholars have established families of the various versions
and have formulated clear relationships among the ver-
sions according to clues within the manuscripts and
information gathered about the texts.
In spite of their traditional title, and unlike some of
the subsequent extensions, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles
in their earliest identifiable versions are not an attempt to
trace the course of Anglo-Saxon history. After 891 and
892, the versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles are inde-
pendent of one another. Two names have been suggested
for the authorship of the chronicles, King ALFREDand
Bishop WULFSTAN. The royal patronage of any of the
authors remains unclear despite hints from evidence
internal to the texts. Also uncertain is the place of origin
of the different chronicle versions. The quality of the