al-Razi, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya 615Sons, 1913); Spiro Kostof, The Orthodox Baptistery of
Ravenna (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press,
1965); Otto Georg Simson, Sacred Fortress: Byzantine Art
and Statecraft in Ravenna(1948; reprint, Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1965); Annabel Jane Wharton,
Refiguring the Post Classical City: Dura Europos, Jerash,
Jerusalem, and Ravenna(Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1995).
Raymond IV of Saint Giles of Toulouse(ca. 1041–
1105)one of the leaders of the First Crusade
Born about 1041, Raymond was the second son of Pons
of Toulouse and the thrice married Almodis of La
Marche. The marquis of PROVENCEfrom 1063, on the
death of his brother, he became count of TOULOUSEin
- He was the first prince to respond to Pope URBAN
II’s call for a CRUSADE, and he left for the East in 1096.
After refusing to pay homage to the BYZANTINEemperor
ALEXIOSI, he eventually worked out an agreement with
the Greeks to organize a joint crusade. After the siege
and capture of ANTIOCHin 1098, he tried to restore that
city to the Byzantines but failed, losing it to BOHEMOND
I. From then on he played a more successful role in
the leadership of the First Crusade, which captured
JERUSALEMin 1099. He refused the offer to become king
and protector of the holy places. Instead he founded the
county of TRIPOLI, after campaigning in ANATOLIA. Set-
tling in the East, he died in his CASTLEnear Tripoli on
February 28, 1105.
See alsoLATIN STATES INGREECE.
Further reading:Edward Peters, ed., The First Cru-
sade: The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres and Other Source
Materials,2d ed. (1971; reprint, Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press, 1998); John Hugh Hill, Raymond
IV, Count of Toulouse(Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University
Press, 1962); Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and
the Idea of Crusading(Philadelphia: University of Penn-
sylvania Press, 1986); Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First
Crusaders, 1095–1131(Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1997); Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades.
Vol. 2, The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East,
1100–1187 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1952).
Raymond of Peñafort, Saint(ca. 1175/85–1275)
Catalan Dominican friar, canonist
Raymond was born at Villafranca del Penedes near
BARCELONAbetween 1175 and 1185. He studied there in
1204, then at BOLOGNAfrom 1210 and became a doctor
of LAWin 1216. After teaching in Bologna for some years,
he returned to Barcelona in 1220 or 1222 and entered the
DOMINICAN ORDERin 1222. From 1228 he traveled with a
papal LEGATEapplying and enforcing the reforms of the
Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. His fellow canonist,
Pope GREGORYIX, called him to his court in 1229 as a
confessor and to assemble and order the papal and
canonical documents from 1140 and GRATIAN’s Decretum.
This new collection called the Decretalswas promulgated
by Gregory IX on September 5, 1234.
Raymond returned to live in CATALONIAfrom 1236 to- The meeting of the general chapter of the order at
Bologna in 1238 chose him as master general. In that
capacity he drew up the order’s constitutions. In 1240 he
resigned from his position and returned to Barcelona,
where he intervened in the affairs of the kingdom of
ARAGON and encouraged the conversion of JEWS and
Muslims. He died on January 6, 1275, at Barcelona, per-
haps 100 years old. His canonization process began at a
council of Tarragona in 1279 but ended successfully only
in 1601.
WORKS AND THOUGHT
He also wrote several other important canonical and ethi-
cal works, a summa on canon law after 1216, another
summa on penance in 1220/21, a third one after 1234,
and a treatise on matrimony between 1210 and 1214. The
treatise on penance was a manual for Dominican confes-
sors to deal with sins against GOD such as SIMONY,
HERESY, apostasy, perjury, sorcery, sacrilege, and the with-
holding of tithes. Other topics were SINSagainst one’s
neighbor, including homicides, tournaments, duels,
thefts, arson, and usury.
The penitential thought of Raymond of Peñafort tried
to clarify the actual responsibility of the individual Chris-
tian. Priestly confessors were exhorted to judge an exte-
rior act in terms of the person, his or her intention, and
his or her circumstances, and to determine whether a SIN
was actually committed and if so, to assess its magnitude
and the appropriate response by the penitent.
See alsoPENITENTIALS.
Further reading: Stehan Kuttner, “Raymond of
Peñafort as Editor: The Decretals and Constituitiones of
Gregory IX,” Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law12 (1982):
65–80; Thomas M. Schwertner, Saint Raymond of Pen-
nafort,ed. G. M. Woodcock (Milwaukee: Bruce, 1935).al-Razi, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya
(Rhazes) (ca. 854–925/935) Persian philosopher, alchemist,
scientist, physician
Born at Rayy in Persia about 854, al-Razi wrote in Arabic.
Although his philosophical thought was not known to
the medieval West, his medical and pharmacological
works were the object of Latin translations by GERARDof
Cremona. There were other translations into the VERNAC-
ULARlanguages. Al-Razi was a practicing clinician, who
headed hospitals at Rayy and BAGHDAD. His Treatise on
Small-pox and Measles contained the first accurate
description of those deadly diseases. Al-Razi was aware of
psychotherapy and opposed to metaphysical explanations
and the idea of the natural predisposition. For him, the