1. MedievWorld1_fm_4pp.qxd

Russia and Rus ́ 635

The Rurikid dynasty ruled RUSSIA ANDRUS ́from the ninth
century until 1598 or 1614.
See alsoKIEV ANDKIEVANRUS ́;MONGOLS AND THE
MONGOLEMPIRE.
Further reading:Samuel H. Cross and Olgerd P.
Sherbowitz-Wetzor, trans., The Russian Primary Chroni-
cle: Laurentian Text (Cambridge, Mass.: Mediaeval
Academy of America, 1953); Nora K. Chadwick, The
Beginnings of Russian History: An Enquiry into Sources
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946); H. R.
Ellis Davidson, The Viking Road to Byzantium(London:
Allen and Unwin, 1976); Simon Franklin and Jonathan
Shepard, The Emergence of Rus ́, 750–1200(New York:
Longman, 1996).

Rushd, Ibn SeeIBNRUSHD.

Russia and Rus ́ Modern Russia had its origins in
Kievan Rus ́, which was formed during the ninth century
under the leadership of a merchant and military elite of
Scandinavian origin. That principality had its own origins
from the late eighth century in the region between Lake
Ladoga and NOVGOROD. These armed bands traded with
the lands of the ARABS and the MERCHANTSof CON-
STANTINOPLE. They lived in settlements along the river
journey to the BLACKSEA. They had to subdue the Slavic
tribes who lived along that route from the Baltic and
North Seas. Kiev was the principal river port on this
route and soon became the residence of the leading mer-
chants and entrepreneurs.

THE PRINCES OF KIEV

In 860, these aggressive merchant-raiders even besieged
Constantinople itself. The first princes of Kiev,OLEGand
IGOR, attacked the Byzantine capital and obtained peace
treaties and commercial privileges in 911 and 944. Later
in the 10th century, Igor’s son, Svatyslav (r. 945–972),
tried to extend his power eastward into the KHAZAR
kingdom that controlled the route from the Volga River
to the Caspian Sea. He then attacked BULGARIAbut was
countered by opposition from the Byzantines. The
Kievan princes continued to try to control the Slav and
Finnish subject tribes. During the 10th and 11th cen-
turies, the old tribal regions were replaced by adminis-
trative centers controlled by strongholds and fortified
towns. From the early 11th century, the term Rus ́desig-
nated the territories subjected to the princes of Kiev or
from the shores of the Baltic to the course of the Dniepr
River, and from the Dvina River to the upper course of
the Volga.

CHRISTIANIZATION

The official adoption of Christianity by VLADIMIRI THE
GREATin 988 was the next step in a process of cultural
unification of these territories. The Orthodox Church in

Constantinople sent priests and helped in establishing a

diocesan organization. Kiev was elevated to rank of

metropolitan for the area in about 990 and retained this

ecclesiastical preeminence until the 14th century. The

allegiance of the Kievan church to the Greek Orthodox

Church in Constantinople played a decisive role in the

development of Russian culture, literature, intellectual

models, and the arts.

MONGOL INVASIONS AND THE

FORMATION OF A NEW CENTER

By the late 12th century, Rus ́had been transformed into a

federation of principalities, independent but seemingly

allied against the new Mongol threat. With the capture of

Kiev by the Mongol Khan Batu in 1240, a new center of

government had to be established in the “grand principali-

ties” of northeast Russia, a hitherto marginal region for

Rulers and Dynasties of Kievan Rus ́, Moscow, and Russia

Rivers. This area became the cradle of the later Russian

nation. Populated by Finno-Ugrian tribes it was covered

with forests but was crossed by commerce linking the

Baltic to the Caspian Sea. It was called the land of Rostov

or Suzdal from the name of its major towns. In the 11th

century, it was already under the control of the princes of

Kiev and now presented itself as the sole heir to Kievan

Rus ́. Agriculture there was then progressively dominated

by great landowners, princes, and BOYARS. With a social

and economic system that soon led to the establishment

of an oppressive serfdom, it suffered periodically from

Mongol incursions and the paying of a large tribute. From

1243 to 1480 North-East Rus ́was a province of a part of

the Mongol Empire, the western march of the Golden

Horde. It has remained unclear how much economic and

social damage this new state suffered from the Mongols.

THE PRINCES OF MOSCOW

From this the grand duchy of Moscow emerged, and the

son of Alexander NEVSKY, David (r. 1280–1303), became

the first to be called the prince of MOSCOW. The prestige

of the grand principality of Vladimir or Moscow was

assisted when a metropolitan, Maximus, fleeing Kiev, set-

tled there in 1299. These princes of Moscow, especially

IVANIII THEGREAT, began to break Mongol control. At

Kulikovo, DIMITRIof the Don had already won a great

victory over the Mongols, which led to the virtual inde-

pendence of Moscow. Russia was dominated by Moscow

from then on.

See alsoKIEV ANDKIEVANRUS ́; MONGOLS AND THE

MONGOLEMPIRE.

Further reading:Robert Auty and Dimitri Obolen-

sky, eds., An Introduction to Russian Language and Litera-

ture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977);

Pavel Markovich Dolukhanov, The Early Slavs: Eastern

Europe from the Initial Settlement to the Kievan Rus ́(Lon-

don: Longman, 1996); Simon Franklin and Jonathan

Shepard, The Emergence of Rus ́, 750–1200(New York: