Scholasticism and Scholastic method 651Negotiations begun by legates from the West failed,
and the sides excommunicated each other in 1054,
though the validity of either EXCOMMUNICATIONwas not
clear, even at the time. The schism lasted throughout the
Middle Ages and RENAISSANCE, only temporarily sus-
pended to support mutual efforts against the OTTOMAN
TURKSin the 15th century. The actual anathemas or con-
demnations were not lifted until 1965.
See also CHURCH,EASTERN ORTHODOX;FERRARA-
FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF;HUMBERT OFSILVACANDIDA, CAR-
DINAL;PHOTIOSI THEGREAT.
Further reading: Francis Dvornik, Photian and
Byzantine Ecclesiastical Studies (London: Variorum
Reprints, 1974); J. M. Hussey, The Orthodox Church in the
Byzantine Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986);
Steven Runciman, The Eastern Schism: A Study of the
Papacy and the Eastern Churches during the XIth and the
XIIth Centuries(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955).
Schism, Great(1378–1417) This division occurred
within the Western Church over the question of who was
the rightful pope and lasted from 1378 to 1417. It began
with the death of Pope Gregory XI (r. 1371–78) in 1378
and the dubious election of the arrogant and strange Ital-
ian pope, URBANVI (r. 1378–89). Some of the cardinals
withdrew from ROMEand elected the tough warrior and
cardinal Robert of Geneva, as Clement VII (r. 1378–94),
and he promptly returned to AVIGNON in southern
FRANCE. The popes had only returned from there, an era
called the “Babylonian Captivity,” in Avignon, to Rome a
few years before. The governments of Europe took sides
backing a particular papal claimant and the division
intensified and persisted as successors were elected to the
various two lines of popes.
A general council met at PISAin 1409 to try to end
the schism. It elected yet another pope (Alexander V,
1409–10), but the two other reigning popes refused to
resign. CHRISTENDOMnow had three popes and three
sets of allegiances and appointments to offices. Alexan-
der’s successor, the onetime mercenary soldier now
pope John XXIII (r. 1411–15), convened the Council of
CONSTANCE(1414–18). It ended the schism by electing
Martin V (r. 1417–31), accepting the resignation of
one pope, and deposing John XXIII and Benedict XIII
(r. 1394–1417). This scandal weakened papal authority
for decades and sparked the growth of the conciliar
movement, while limiting discussion of obviously
needed reform of the clergy.
See alsoAILLY, PIERRE D’; GERSON, JOHN; HUS, JOHN;
WYCLIFFE,JOHN.
Further reading:Margaret Harvey, Solutions to the
Schism: A Study of Some English Attitudes 1378 to 1409
(St. Ottilien: EOS Verlag, 1983); Howard Kaminsky, “The
Great Schism,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History.
Vol. 6, c. 1300–c. 1415,ed. Michael Jones (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2000), 674–696; J. Holland
Smith, The Great Schism, 1378 (London: Hamilton,
1970); Robert W. Swanson, Universities, Academics and
the Great Schism (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1979); Walter Ullman, The Origins of the Great
Schism: A Study in Fourteenth-Century Ecclesiastical
History(London: Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1948).Schism, Photian SeePHOTIOSI, THEGREAT.Scholasticism and Scholastic method Medieval
Scholasticism was a form of rationalist thought, a
methodology, and an intellectual approach that was not
limited to one historical period. The word Scholasticism
was coined as a pejorative way to describe the discourse
followed in the university system. The Scholastic way of
thinking is not only found in the Middle Ages; nor is it
limited to theological speculation. In the Middle Ages it
was applied in every discipline and many methodolo-
gies. It developed in the 12th century under the impetus
of a variety of rationalism and developed further with
the introduction of the works of ARISTOTLEin the 13th
century.
At its core were readings and analysis of texts. For
example a reading of the BIBLEwas succeeded by a struc-
tured exposition of theological themes in the manner of a
structured academic analytical manual. The most famous
of these standard texts was the Sentencesof PETERLom-
bard. Scholasticism and academic teaching started with
texts, but proceeded to questions about internal consis-
tency in texts and thought and comparisons involving
conflicting ideas. In the 14th century, the same old
texts generated wider and more practical questions. The
literary genres of Scholastic studies were the lecture,
commentaries, questions, and structured compilations
collected into summae.
The quaestioor question was specific and one of the
primary methods of Scholasticism. For a single question,
arguments for as well as against were advanced and
answered. Such confrontations, especially over the con-
sistency of thought behind opinions elucidated the rich-
ness and pertinence of various points of view. This in
turn improved with the study of logic and led to even
more detailed analysis of texts. Thousands of commen-
taries on a few standard texts were produced.
Scholasticism can also be seen as an attempt to recon-
cile reason, revelation, FAITH, and authority. It could also
be viewed as a search for a SCIENCEand unity of thought
and even a way to integrate some of the ideas of the Mus-
lims and the ancient pagan Greeks into Christian thought.
See alsoABÉLARD,PETER;ALBERTUSMAGNUS;ARISTO-
TLE ANDARISTOTELIANISM; AQUINAS, THOMAS, SAINT; DUNS
SCOTUS; JOHN, BLESSED; PARIS AND THE UNIVERSITY OF
PARIS; PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY;QUODLIBET; SENTENCES;
UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS; WILLIAM OFOCKHAM.