sexuality and sexual attitudes 661Further reading:David L. Wagner, ed. The Seven Lib-
eral Arts in the Middle Ages(Bloomington: Indiana Uni-
versity Press, 1983).
seven sacraments For the Catholic Church in the
Middle Ages, the seven sacraments were, as they are
today, baptism; confession, or penance; the Eucharist, or
communion; confirmation; matrimony, or MARRIAGE;
ordination to the priesthood, and the blessing at DEATH,
or Extreme Unction. In the Middle Ages it was believed
and taught by the church that Christ instituted baptism,
the Eucharist, penance, and ordination, and his words
could be interpreted as justifying the others. The Ortho-
dox Church also accepted seven sacraments from 1267.
They were believed to be actions or ceremonies that con-
veyed GRACEand provided access for Christians to Christ
as their savior and salvation. They acted as signs com-
posed of words and material elements for the saving
actions of Christ, the ultimate minister of the sacra-
ments. Their precise definitions were worked out in the
12th century by GRATIAN, HUGH OFST. VICTOR, and PETER
LOMBARD.
See also AUGUSTINE OFHIPPO,SAINT; CLERGY AND
CLERICAL ORDERS; MASS;REDEMPTION; SIN.
Further reading:J. M. Gallagher, Significando cau-
sant: A Study of Sacramental Efficacy(Fribourg: University
Press, 1965); Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A
History of the Development of Doctrine. 2, The Spirit of
Eastern Christendom (600–1700)(Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1974); Elizabeth F. Rogers, Peter Lombard
and the Sacramental System (1917; reprinted Merrick,
N.Y.: Richwood, 1976); Edward Schillebeeckx, Christ the
Sacrament of the Encounter with God(New York: Sheed &
Ward, 1963); Thomas N. Tentler, Sin and Confession on
the Eve of the Reformation(Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1977).Seville, city and kingdom of (Ishbiliyya) Medieval
Seville was a city in southern SPAINon the Guadalquivir
River, and the principal city and capital of Muslim AL-
ANDALUS. The Roman and BYZANTINEcity was occupied
first by VANDALSand then the VISIGOTHSuntil the Arab
conquest in 711. Seville was the capital of a branch of the
Abbasid dynasty from 1023 to 1091. It became famous
for its beautiful MOSQUES, walls, markets, prosperous
population, and GARDENS. It was also tolerant of its
minority Mozarab Christians and JEWS. It fell in the
RECONQUESTto King Ferdinand III (r. 1217–52) of LEÓN
and CASTILEin 1248. Most of the Muslim population was
deported. King ALFONSO X, Ferdinand’s eldest son,
resided there and was a strong patron of cultural activity,
building, translation projects, and learning. After the
mid-14th century, the economy of the city benefited espe-
cially from its rich TRADEin olive oil. In the 15th century,
it became an area of great activity for the INQUISITION,
especially in its persecution of the Jews.
See alsoALMOHADS;ALMORAVIDS;IBN RUSHD,ABU
L-WALIDMUHAMMAD; ISIDORE OFSEVILLE, SAINT; UMAYYADS
OFCÓRDOBA.
Further reading:Richard A. Fletcher, Moorish Spain
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Enrique
Sordo, Moorish Spain: Córdoba, Seville and Granada,trans.
Ian Michael (New York: Crown, 1963).sexuality and sexual attitudes Sexuality is the set of
meanings put on sexual activity by a culture. In Medieval
Christianity sex was permitted primarily for purposes of
procreation. Such activity used for pleasure was dubiously
ethical although physicians recognized it as a healthy
activity. Christians were allowed no carnal relations except
within marriage. Married couples were to be abstinent
during all periods when conception of a child was impos-
sible or inopportune, such as during pregnancy, menstrual
periods, the time of impurity after childbirth, and the
years of nursing. Once a couple had produced successors,
they were encouraged to be abstinent. Marriage was con-
sidered one of the SEVEN SACRAMENTS, but a state of
CELIBACYwas always considered a higher vocation. Sexu-
ality within marriage was for those who were too weak toA baptismal font from about 1400 in the Cathedral of Orvieto
in central Italy (Courtesy Edward English)