Sicilian Vespers 663Sunni believed that this authority rested more widely on
all of the companions of the Prophet. Ali also refused to
follow the precedents set by Abu Bakr and UMARI, when
he was offered the caliphate at Umar’s death. The “mar-
tyrdom” of the next imam, Husayn, in 680 marked the
beginning of an independent Shia course.
All this provided evidence for the importance Shia
places on the office of imam, who embodies divine spiri-
tual authority and the temporal power to rule: The imam
held the wa layaor guardianship; that is that as the
imam, in his universal dimension as a perfect man, he is a
manifestation of God. Shiism was always a theory of ima-
mate, from which other disciplines such as THEOLOGY,
LAW, MYSTICISM, ethics, and PHILOSOPHYwere formed and
derived. Shiism constituted a party of opposition and reli-
gion, the most important “variant” of Islam, as opposed
to the majority tendency considered to represent a Mus-
lim “orthodoxy,” commonly called SUNNAor SUNNISM.
Shiism has included several branches. There were
four periods of imamism. The DEATHof each imam gave
rise to one or more schisms, which, in nearly every case,
had only an ephemeral existence. The main branches of
the Shia have been the majority Twelvers (Ithan Asharis),
the ISMAILI, the Nizaris, the Mutazila (Seceders), the Zay-
dis, and the Alawis or Nusayris. There also evolved fur-
ther differences with the Sunni over rituals, MARRIAGE,
and inheritance.
See alsoABBASIDS; ASSASSINS;FATIMIDS; AL-HUSAYN
IBNALI IBNABITALIB.
Further reading:Syed Husain M. Jafri, The Origins
and Early Development of Shia Islam(Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2000); Moojan Momen, An Introduction to
Shii Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiism
(London: G. Ronald, 1985).
ships and shipbuilding There were great advances in
the shipbuilding arts in the Middle Ages. Transport by
water, across the seas and along the rivers, then was the
simplest, most efficient, and often the safest means of com-
munication and transport. The classical Roman legacy was
transmitted intact to the BYZANTINEEMPIRE. Their ships
and weapons, such as GREEK FIRE, were important to the
survival of CONSTANTINOPLE. The ARABSintroduced their
own traditions to Mediterranean waters from the Red Sea
and Persian Gulf. They also took over the shipbuilding
yards and expertise of ALEXANDRIAand Carthage. The great
successes of the VIKINGSin the ninth and 10th centuries
were founded on their abilities to sail on the open sea and
to move up rivers for raiding or trade. At nearly the same
time, the cog evolved for moving bulky material.
Galleys were common for WARFAREin the Mediter-
ranean and ships propelled by sails became more sophis-
ticated in the Middle Ages, especially in the Atlantic.
Sailing ships with or without oars were more efficient in
the rougher waters of the Atlantic. Rigging, masts, sail
shapes, hull shapes, crew skills, and rudders all became
more efficient as late medieval ships in the north reached
200 to 300 tons.
See alsoCOMPASS;CRUSADES;GENOA;GOKSTAD SHIP;
GREENLAND;HANSEATIC LEAGUE;HENRY “THE NAVIGA-
TOR,”PRINCE; NAVIGATION; PISA; PORTUGAL; TRADE AND
COMMERCE;VENICE; WARFARE.
Further reading: Aly Mohammed Fahmy, Muslim
Sea-Power in the Eastern Mediterranean from the Seventh to
the Tenth Century A.D.(Cairo: National Publication &
Printing House, 1966); Basil Greenhill, The Evolution of
the Sailing Ship, 1250–1580(London: Conway Maritime
Press, 1995); George F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the
Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times, ed.
John Carswell rev. and expanded ed. (Princeton, Prince-
ton University Press, 1995); Gillian Hutchinson, Medieval
Ships and Shipping(London: Leicester University Press,
1994); Frederic C. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders
of the Renaissance (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press,
1934); Richard W. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Econ-
omy, 600–1600(London: Croom Helm, 1980).Sicilian Vespers This was a popular rebellion or revo-
lution that usurped control of the island of SICILYfrom
the Angevins of NAPLES, essentially from the French con-
trol of CHARLESI OFANJOU. It began at the hour of ves-
pers on Easter Monday, March 30, 1282, at PALERMO.It
started with an insult to a Sicilian woman; within a few
hours thousands of French men, women, and children
were killed. It began as an attempt to form the “commune
of the island of Sicily” and quickly spread throughout the
island. A parliament was called, and it proclaimed a
republic. Some of the towns at the western end of the
island placed themselves under papal rule, a decision that
Martin IV (r. 1281–85), a Frenchman, refused to accept;
instead, he excommunicated the rebels. The latter now
turned to the Ghibellines and had to accept help from
Peter III (r. 1239–85) of ARAGON, who was crowned king
of Sicily in August 2, 1282. Peter promised to administer
the island according to its own laws, treating it as sepa-
rate country from Aragon. Its new leaders were the for-
mer HOHENSTAUFEN councilors of MANFRED, who had
been defeated by Charles in 1266. Actual popular support
for this was minimal until Charles provoked local resis-
tance by his stern measures and then attacked the island
to restore his authority. The conflict lasted for two
decades and the Aragonese in the end triumphed. How-
ever, Sicily remained under foreign domination, albeit
slightly less exploitative. Frederick III (r. 1272–1337)
became its second Aragonese king in 1296.
Further reading: David Abulatia, The Western
Mediterranean Kingdoms, 1200–1500(London: Longman,
1997); Jean Dunbabin, Charles I of Anjou: Power, Kingship
and State-Making in Thirteenth-Century Europe (New
York: Longman, 1998); Steven Runciman, The Sicilian