674 spoliaand right of spoil
Croatian princes established an independent principality
there and it was annexed by TOMISLAVI to the kingdom of
CROATIA. It was conquered by HUNGARY in 1133. It
remained Hungarian until 1420, when it was annexed to
VENICE. It had, however, fallen under Venetian colonial
domination and been a colony long before that annexation.
Further reading:John V. A. Fine, The Early Medieval
Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth
Century(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991);
John V. A. Fine, The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Sur-
vey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994).
spoliaand right of spoil The right of spoil in the
Middle Ages was the ability or right of anyone who had
or claimed to have a right over a church to claim the
movable goods of the deceased cleric who had served that
church. The goods assigned to churches were originally
considered the property of the whole Christian commu-
nity. So bishops were merely administrators and could
not dispose of them. Soon the relatives of the patrons of
churches began to claim rights of inheritance even on
clerical property and of a church’s revenues. Clerics were
considered as employees of their bishop and even sought
to seize episcopal property. Pope GREGORYI THEGREAT
ruled that any acquisition of church goods by a clerical
officeholder made after elevation to an episcopal see must
be returned to the church, but any goods possessed
beforehand could be freely bequeathed by testament.
The property of parishes began to be considered as
part of the patrimony of the church. This idea deprived
the cleric and his family of any possibility of keeping or
disposing of them. At the same time kings and great lay
owners of rights over a church simply appropriated prop-
erty. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the church’s effort at
reform to escape from this loss of wealth resorted to
transforming formally this kind of private property only
into rights of patronage or appointment. The LAITYwould
renounce the right of spoil in exchange for compensatory
rents, or influence of the choice of appointee. Neverthe-
less, kings, princes, patrons, popes, and clerics continued
to seize the movable goods of benefice holders who had
depended in some way on them. Some distinction was
established at that time between personal movable goods
and landed property tied to a supporting BENEFICE. The
latter was to remain untouchable.
The landed property of a benefice holder himself,
however, could be bequeathed by testament by the 19th
century. Pope JOHNXXII, by the constitution Ex debitoin
1316, retained the right of spoil over any benefice whose
collation or appointment he had managed to reserve.
This was understood to be liturgical objects, manuscripts,
cash, vestments, provisions, rentals to be collected, and
debts due. Pope CLEMENTVI, listening to the complaints
of the CLERGY, excluded from the right of spoil books and
liturgical objects acquired by the deceased cleric. This
included also implements, and ANIMALSfor agriculture.
At the same time Clement also charged papal collectors
of spoils with paying the debts of the deceased, covering
the expenses of funerals, satisfying the salaries of ser-
vants, and fulfilling the pious testamentary legacies of
the deceased. This right generated the PAPACYfor impor-
tant profits in the 14th century. The Council of CON-
STANCEobliged Pope Martin V (r. 1417–31) to limit the
application of the papal right of spoil to the benefices of
members of the papal Curia.
See alsoMORTMAIN; WILLS AND TESTAMENTS.
Further reading:Bernard Guillemain, “Spoil, Right
of,” EMA2.1,377–1,378; Daniel Williman, Records of the
Papal Right, Spoil, 1316–1412(Paris: Éditions du Centre
national de la recherche scientifique, 1974); Daniel Willi-
man, The Right of Spoil of the Popes of Avignon, 1316–1415
(Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1988).stained glass In the Middle Ages and RENAISSANCE,
stained glass was a translucent material intended to fill in
and decorate a window bay. It was made of pieces of glass,
colored or plain, perhaps painted, and all set in a frame-
work usually of lead. The origins of this art have remained
little known. The earliest evidence of such window glass
was in RAVENNAin the sixth century, Jarrow in the ninth
century, and ROUENin the midninth century. Any early his-
tory of extant stained glass must begin at Neuwiller from
the late 11th century, Augsburg from about 1100, and Le
Mans from about 1125. In the 12th century, stained glass
windows began to become larger to allow more light into
churches. They were usually brightly colored, however, the
CISTERCIANSused only plain or clear glass. In the GOTHIC
art and architecture of the 13th century, stained glass
became walls of buildings yet full of light with many colors.
Designs of programs became much more complex such as
at SAINTE-CHAPELLEin PARIS, but still to demonstrate the
good effects of the light of GODon the soul. From the 14th
century, stained glass became clearer, and more three-
dimensional. The iconography of stained glass remained
conservative throughout the Middle Ages, using illustra-
tions from the BIBLE, the GOSPELS, and the lives of saints.
See also GOTHIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE; ROSE
WINDOWS.
Further reading:Madeline H. Caviness, Stained Glass
before 1540: An Annotated Bibliography(Boston: G. K.
Hall, 1983); Madeline Caviness, Stained Glass Windows
(Turnhout: Brepols, 1996); Louis Grodecki, Gothic
Stained Glass, 1200–1300(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univer-
sity Press, 1985); Richard Marks, Stained Glass in England
during the Middle Ages(Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 1993).states of the church See ALBORNOZ, GIL, CARDINAL;
DONATION OFCONSTANTINE;PAPACY; PAPALSTATES.