680 swine
brother, Magnus I Barnlock (r. 1275–90). In about 1280,
to strengthen his military resources, Magnus granted fis-
cal privileges to all those who performed mounted mili-
tary service for him, attaching this new aristocracy to the
Crown. Taxation measures were established to provide
for territorial defense. After the death of Magnus I, a
struggle broke out between King Birger Magnusson (r.
1290–1318) and his brothers, Dukes Erik and Waldemar.
The conflict was promoted and made possible by the rest-
less and ambitious nobility. A civil war ended with
Birger’s murder of his brothers in 1317. Duke Erik’s son,
Magnus II Ericsson (r. 1319–63/64), ascended the throne
under a regency in 1319. This young Magnus II was
already king of NORWAYthrough his mother’s family. In
1332, he added to his realm the Danish provinces of Sca-
nia and Blekinge. In about 1350, he tried to enforce a
common code of law throughout the whole of this large
kingdom.
UNION WITH OTHER SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMSIn the middle of the 14th century, the Black Death created
a great drop in population. The king had to face opposi-
tion from the Norwegian nobility from 1343 and then
from the Swedish nobility between 1356 and 1359. He
soon lost possession of Scania, Blekinge, and GOTLANDby
- After these disasters, the Swedish aristocracy
deposed Magnus II and placed Albert of Mecklenburg (r.
1364–89) on the throne, but he was never able to estab-
lish authority over this swollen country. Albert of Meck-
lenburg in 1389 had to appeal for help in governing to
Queen MARGARETof Denmark, who had already become
the ruler of Norway and Denmark.
Striving to carry out a permanent dynastic union of
Scandinavia in 1397, she called an assembly of its
nobility and bishops to Kalmar in order to establish a
legal basis for this Union of Kalmar, with her nephew,
Erik of Pomerania (r. 1396–1439), as heir to all three
thrones. By the time of her death in 1412, Margaret,
however, had failed to make this union permanent and
each country retained its own laws with no central gov-
erning administration. Throughout the rest of the 15th
century there were numerous temporary kingships and
regencies.
Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, a noble from the Swedish
mining districts of Dalecarlia, started a revolt that rapidly
spread over the whole kingdom between 1434 and 1436.
Erik of Pomerania was forced to recognize Engelbrekt as
the regent of Sweden in 1435. Despite Engelbrekt’s assas-
sination in 1436, Erik of Pomerania never succeeded in
restoring his authority over Sweden. At the death of his
successor, Christopher of Bavaria (r. 1440/41–48), the
Swedes refused to accept the king designated by the
Danes, Christian I of Oldenburg (r. 1457–64, 1465–67).
In 1448, they chose as ruler Charles Canutesson Bonde
(1448–57, 1465, 1467–70). Nevertheless, Christian I was
able to assume the Crown of Sweden in 1457. At his
death in 1470, he left the regency to his nephew, Sten
Sture the Elder (regent 1470/71–97, 1501–03). In reality
Sweden was being governed by an oligarchic regime dom-
inated by a few powerful families, the Tott, Oxenstierna,
and Vasa. Sten Sture the Elder had to recognize the
sovereignty of King John of Denmark (r. 1497–1501).
See alsoADAM OFBREMEN;VIKINGS.
Further reading:Ingvar Andersson, A History of Swe-
den,trans. Carolyn Hannay and Alan Blair, 2d ed. (New
York: Praeger, 1970); Anna Götlind, Technology and Reli-
gion in Medieval Sweden(Göteborg: Distribution, Depart-
ment of History, University of Göteborg, 1993); Henrik
Roelvink, Franciscans in Sweden: Medieval Remnants of
Franciscan Activities(Assen: Van Gorcum, 1998); Birgit
and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia: From Conversion
to Reformation, circa 800–1500(Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1993); Franklin Scott, Sweden: The
Nation’s History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1977).swine See AGRICULTURE; ANIMALS AND ANIMAL HUS-
BANDRY; FOOD, DRINK, AND NUTRITION.Switzerland (Schwyz, Helvetia) The name Switzer-
land derives from a community of free peasants and shep-
herds from the valley of Schwyz, the first canton of the
Swiss Confederation, which was formed in 1291. The ter-
ritories that converged in the late Middle Ages to from
present-day Switzerland were situated between the Jura
Mountains and the Alps. They extended from Lake
Leman to Lake Constance, as well as into northern LOM-
BARDY. They were initially peopled by Celts, Rhaetians,
and Ligurians. Christianity arrived in the early fourth
century. Between the early sixth century and the eighth
century, all these territories passed under the control of
the FRANKSwhen they conquered the kingdom of the
BURGUNDIANS. They were subsequently divided among
several rulers in the late Carolingian Empire and within
the Carolingian kingdoms that followed.
They all belonged to the HOLYROMANEMPIREfrom
1032, when HENRYIII (1017–56) became king of BUR-
GUNDY. The episcopal towns and the main abbeys
became the centers of small ecclesiastical principalities
that maintained themselves up to the Reformation of the
16th century and later. The Confederation formed in
1291 of numerous alliances between communities in the
Alpine region connected all these free communities, both
rural and urban. It was rapidly reinforced by eight new
members in 1353 struggling against the HABSBURGS, the
main lords of the region. In the second half of the 14th
century, this confederation designated the territory
formed by members, no longer just an alliance. The exis-
tence of this region as a sovereign country was con-
firmed between 1315 and 1386 in victorious battles
against the Hapsburgs.