synagogue 681The survival of Switzerland was therefore based on
political alliances and military successes against lay and
ecclesiastical lords. A national identity was formed in the
15th century based on revolts against unworthy and
unacceptable authorities. Switzerland, invoking divine
protection soon distanced itself from any ecclesiastical
hierarchy, including the PAPACY. So the COUNCILSof CON-
STANCEand BASELwere held there in the 15th century.
Switzerland maintained a strong military force based on
its famous pikemen in the 15th century to protect its
independence from the French, the dukes of Burgundy,
the Habsburgs, the house of SAVOY, and the duchy of
MILAN.
See alsoWILLIAMTELL.
Further reading:Roger Sablonier, “The Swiss Con-
federation,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History.Vol.
7, c. 1415–c. 1500,ed. Christopher Allmand (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998), 645–670; Edgar Bon-
jour, H. S. Offler, and G. R. Potter, A Short History of
Switzerland(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952); Jonathan
Steinberg, Why Switzerland?2d ed. (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1996).
swords and daggers SeeWEAPONS AND WEAPONRY.
Sylvester II, Pope (Gerbert of Aurillac)(ca. 945–
1003)scholar
Gerbert, later Sylvester II, was born about 945 perhaps
in Aurillac in the Auvergne or in Aquitaine. Of humble
birth, he was educated at the BENEDICTINEmonastery of
Aurillac and sent to BARCELONAto study. After meeting
the emperor OTTOI in ROMEin 970, Gerbert spent
much of the rest of his life within the orbit of the Ger-
man empire. About 972 he went to RHEIMSto study and
lectured there for many years. In 997 he left FRANCEfor
the court of OTTOIII, whom he had met in Rome in
- The emperor welcomed him as an old supporter of
the imperial family and obtained his appointment as
the archbishop of RAVENNAin 998. A year later Otto
secured his elevation to the PAPACY. He was the first
Frenchman to hold this office, taking the name Pope
Sylvester II.
Sylvester II is usually credited with encouraging
Otto’s ambitious and universalistic visions of a restored
Roman Empire with perhaps a major role for the papacy.
Besides trying to encourage the spread of Christianity in
Eastern Europe, he worked against SIMONYand promoted
clerical CELIBACY. An accomplished scholar who devised
influential teaching methods, he promoted and con-
tributed to the study of astronomy, LOGIC, and dialectic;
assisted with the introduction of Arabic numerals into
mathematics; and collected ancient manuscripts. He had
a reputation for dabbling in MAGIC. Leaving behind some
220 letters, he died in Rome on May 12, 1003, and was
buried in Saint John Lateran.
See alsoHUGHCAPET,KING OFFRANCE; STEPHENI OF
HUNGARY, SAINT.
Further reading:Harriet Pratt Lattin, trans., The Let-
ters of Gerbert, with His Papal Privileges as Sylvester II
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1961); Eleanor
Shipley Duckett, Death and Life in the Tenth Century(Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967); Richard W.
Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages(New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1953).Symeon of Bulgaria SeeSIMEONI.synagogue(assembly house) A concept inherited
from the ancient world in Greek synagogue meant “a
place of assembly” as did the Hebrew, Beth-Knesset.In
Latin it referred to the schola judeorumor “school of the
Jews” or “synagoga.” This was identified with the com-
munity. In the Middle Ages the term, referred to Judaism
as a whole, as opposed to the Christian Church, and was
used as a widely diffused iconographical theme that
intended to teach contempt for Israel.Interior view of the Synagogue El Tránsito (Sefardi Museum) in
Toledo, Spain (1366) (Vanni / Art Resource)