704 Tuscany
MONGOLS in the 13th century. The Seljuks and the
Ottomans eventually dominated the Middle East and
absorbed the BYZANTINEEMPIRE.
See also ANATOLIA;AVARS;CUMANS;GHAZNAWIDS;
HUNS;KHAZARS;MAMLUKS; OTTOMANTURKS ANDEMPIRE;
SAMANIDS; SELJUKTURKS OFRUM; TAMERLANE; TUGHRUL
BEG;TULUNIDS.
Further reading:Margaret Bainbridge, ed., The Turkic
Peoples of the World(London: Kegan Paul International,
1993); Peter B. Golden, An Introduction to the History of
the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in
Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East
(Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1992); Peter B. Golden,
Nomads and Sedentary Societies in Medieval Eurasia
(Washington, D.C.: American Historical Association,
1998); Vladimir Minorsky, The Turks, Iran and the Cauca-
sus in the Middle(London: Variorum Reprints, 1978).
Tuscany Medieval Tuscany was a region in central
ITA LYbounded by the sea to the west and the Apennine
Mountains to the north and east, with a much less
defined border to the south. It was a major part of a pre-
Roman Etruscan network of kingships. The LOMBARDS
and Carolingians established territorial states there in the
early Middle Ages. After the year 1000, Tuscany was
divided into many small territorial lordships only nomi-
nally controlled by any emperor, lord, or monarch. By the
12th century numerous towns had sprung up and were
assuming autonomy from the rural lords. By the end of
that century, the towns were beginning to dominate the
local nobility and were functioning independently of the
Holy Roman Emperor. The cities then proceed to fight
among themselves, and the large ones tried to asset their
control over the smaller adjacent towns.
A rich agricultural region, Tuscany was famous in the
Middle Ages and RENAISSANCEfor its wines, oils, and other
agricultural products. From the 13th century, its merchants
dominated European TRADE, commerce, and BANKING. Its
history from 1200 to 1550 is best followed by studying its
important cities, which established republican and signo-
rial forms of government. The populations of these towns
were among the highest in Europe, with FLORENCE at
around 100,000 and SIENAat approximately 50,000. Dev-
astated by PLAGUE, these figures, however, had fallen to
half at best by the 15th century. By 1500 the city-state of
Florence dominated the region and only Siena retained any
semblance of autonomy. The region was also extremely
important in the development of literature and of
ROMANESQUEand GOTHICart and architecture, producing
such writers and artists as DANTEALIGHIERI,BOCCACCIO,
GIOTTO,DUCCIO DI BUONINSEGNA,SIMONE MARTINI,
MASACCIO, and FRAANGELICO. Its dialect of Italian later
became a standard form for the Italian language in general.
See alsoCOMMUNE;GUELFS ANDGHIBELLINES;LUCCA;
PISA;SAFFRON; WINE AND WINEMAKING.
Further reading:Thomas W. Blomquist and Maureen
F. Mazzaoui, eds., The “Other Tuscany”: Essays in the His-
tory of Lucca, Pisa, and Siena during the Thirteenth, Four-
teenth, and Fifteenth Centuries (Kalamazoo, Mich.:
Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan Uni-
versity, 1994); Anthony McIntyre, Medieval Tuscany and
Umbria(San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992).Tyler, Wat (Walter)(d. 1381)one of the leaders of the
Peasants’ Revolt in England
Probably influenced by the priest John BALL, Wat Tyler left
his work in Kent and participated in the organization of
the English Peasants’ Revolt in Kent and Essex Counties
against the king, the nobility, and the church establish-
ments. He seems to have become a captain of the rebels
around June 7, 1381, perhaps because he had some mili-
tary experience. In the spring and summer of 1381, he led
the revolt successfully if temporarily, seizing CANTERBURY,
and even LONDON. Violence of the rebels in the city turned
the towns people against them, so London adopted at best
a neutral attitude toward the rebellion. Tyler and the rebels
made progressively more radical demands for more social
equality, livable working conditions, and lower taxes.
RICHARDII promised concessions, but at a meeting on June
15, 1381, Tyler, perhaps considering an assassination of the
king, was killed whether by a prearranged plan or by
chance. Richard promptly made more promises and the
rebels, essentially leaderless, rashly disbanded. The king
soon reneged on his promises and had many rebels hunted
down and executed, despite their pardons.
See alsoJACQUÉRIE; PEASANT REBELLIONS.
Further reading:R. B. Dobson, ed., The Peasants’
Revolt of 1381(London: Macmillan, 1970); Rodney H.
Hilton and T. H. Aston, eds., The English of 1381(Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Steven Jus-
tice, Writing and Rebellion: England in 1381(Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1994); Philip Lindsay and
Reg Groves, The Peasants’ Revolt, 1381(Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood Press, 1974); Charles Oman, The Great Revolt
of 1381 (1906; reprint, New York: Greenwood Press,
1969).Tyre Medieval Tyre was a city in LEBANONwith a his-
tory extending back thousands of years. Under the
Byzantines in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, its
harbor was among the most important industrial, trading,
and shipping centers along the eastern coast of the
Mediterranean. It continued to play that role until the
14th century. Tyre was also a major religious center and
linked to ANTIOCH. After the Arab conquest of 638, the
Greek population mostly left and the city declined in eco-
nomic terms. In 1123 it was conquered by the crusaders
after a siege of five months with the help of naval support
from VENICE. Consequently, Venice was granted one-third
of the city and control of its harbor, which was second