52 Apulia
apostles by a continuous succession. Thus, bishops are
considered the successors of the apostles, they perform
the same functions as the apostles, and their commission
dates to the time of the apostles. They also succeed to
the same sees or dioceses in a line that can be traced to
the apostles. Some writers thought that their consecra-
tion to the episcopal office was inherited from the apos-
tles through the Holy Spirit, thus empowering their
work. In the first century C.E., Clement, the bishop of
Rome (ca. 88–ca. 97), affirmed their succession from the
apostles. The church of the Middle Ages did not ques-
tion this succession. However, the actual continuity of
these successions has since been disputed, especially by
the 16th-century reformers.
Further reading:Arnold Ehrhardt, The Apostolic Suc-
cession in the First Two Centuries of the Church(London:
Lutterworth Press, 1953); William Telfer, The Office of a
Bishop(London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1962).
Apulia(Puglia)Apulia is an area or province in the
heel-shaped southeastern part of the Italian peninsula.
It is bordered on the north by the mountainous
Garagano peninsula and by the Strait of Otranto in the
south. BARIand Brindisi are its chief towns. Apulia was
a battleground between the emperor JUSTINIANI’s troops
and the OSTROGOTHS. The LOMBARDSoverran it in the
late sixth century, making it part of the Duchy of Ben-
evento. Subsequently it was attacked by ARABS, and by
the emperor Louis II (d. 875). BASILI retook much of
the region for BYZANTIUM in the ninth century. The
NORMANSunder Robert GUISCARDset up the duchy of
Apulia in the 11th century. The Byzantines were at last
ejected from Apulia in 1071 when the Normans cap-
tured Bari. The Normans launched their attacks on the
Balkans and Byzantium from this area, which also pro-
vided many of the harbors for launching ships and men
into the CRUSADES. Apulia reached its highest level of
prosperity under King ROGER II of SICILY and then
Emperor FREDRICK II. After the SICILIAN VESPERS of
1282, however, and the imposition of Angevin rule, it
began a long slide into stagnation and neglect.
Further reading: Tessa Garton, Early Romanesque
Sculpture in Apulia (New York: Garland, 1984); G. A.
Loud, The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the
Norman Conquest(Harlow: Longman, 2000).
al-Aqsa Mosque SeeDOME OF THEROCK.
Aquinas, Thomas, Saint(1224/5–1274) Dominican
friar, Scholastic philosopher, theologian
Thomas was born of noble family at Roccasecca
about 1225 in south-central Italy and for a time served
as a BENEDICTINEoblate at MONTECASSINO. He began
his studies at NAPLES in 1239, formally joining the
DOMINICANSin April 1244. He continued his education at
PARISfrom 1245 to 1248, especially with ALBERTUSMAG-
NUS. Following Albertus, he moved to COLOGNEin 1248
and spent four years there, completing his education and
beginning to teach.WRITING AND TRAVELING
Back in Paris, Thomas studied there from 1252 to 1256.
During this period he produced his Commentary on the
Sentencesof PETERLombard in 1256, as well as On Being
and Essenceand On the Principles of Nature.He became a
master of theology in 1256 and disputed and wrote on
numerous questions. Thomas was a strong defender of
the mendicant orders against the jealous attacks of the
secular masters of Paris and on this issue completed a
major tract called Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et reli-
gionemin 1256.
Returning to ITA LYin 1259, Thomas probably lived at
Naples from 1259 to 1261, continuing to write his
Summa contra Gentiles. This was finished at Orvieto,
where he held the post of reader for the convent from
1261 to 1265. There, too, he wrote his Commentary on the
Book of Job,demonstrating a fine skill in biblical exegesis.
About the same time he began work on his commentary
on the four Gospels using extracts from the church
fathers, including those from the Greek tradition.
From 1265 to 1268, Thomas directed the Dominican
center for studies at Rome; started a second commentary
on the Sentences;began his best-known work, the Summa
theologiae;and completed many other works.
In the autumn of 1268, back again at Paris, Thomas
taught, disputed, and wrote on numerous other questions
and completed the second part of the Summain 1271–72.
At the same time he adopted a moderate viewpoint on the
eternity of the world, a conflict then raging in Paris from
new ideas from the recently translated Aristotelian texts.
In spring 1272, Thomas returned to Naples to direct
the new Dominican studiumthere. He continued writing
the third part of the Summaand lectured on the Epistle to
the Romans and the Psalms. After an intense mystical
experience and fatigue that obliged him to rest, he
stopped writing and teaching around 1273. Summoned
by Pope Gregory X (r. 1272–76) to the Second Council of
Lyon, he died in transit on March 7, 1274, at the CISTER-
CIANabbey of Fossanova.QUESTIONABLE CONDEMNATION
After his death, on March 7, 1277, at the University of
Paris, Bishop Stephen Tempier condemned 219 articles or
propositions, most linked to the thought of IBNRUSHD
(Averroës), some against the doctrines of Thomas him-
self. This was incited by his enemies among the FRANCIS-
CANand secular scholars there. Defying such attempts at
disparagement, Thomas’s growing reputation for sanctity
led to his canonization by Pope JOHNXXII in 1323. His
earlier condemnations were forgotten.