710 Urban II, Blessed
beginning of the sixth century. They spread throughout
western Christian Europe over the next two centuries.
The Carolingian Reform movement, led by ALCUIN OF
YORK in the ninth century, was a product of these
schools. The educational reforms of CHARLEMAGNE
required the establishment of a school in every bishopric
and monastery of his empire. In them the CLERGYwould
be trained to the new standards. Many of these monastic
schools continued to educate the clergy and the LAITY
throughout the period up to 1500. There was even some
provision to educate talented men of poor families,
whose skills could be put to work for the church and the
developing institutions of government. There were also
schools at the courts of monarchs such as Charlemagne.
From the 12th century these palace and monastic
schools sent some of their lay and clerical students to the
new higher education system of the universities. From
that same era the newly developed towns began sponsor-
ing schools that educated the laity, which soon expanded
into business, literacy and arithmetic, and the notarial
arts. All of this had to done by memorization and at an
oral level than later, since usually only teachers had
books and students could only copy and learn what they
were told.
JEWISH EDUCATIONJudaism had its own educational system in the Middle
Ages. It was based on the great Talmudic academies that
originated in Mesopotamia. They emphasized the study of
the law and interpretation of Scriptures and the commen-
taries of earlier sages and scholars. From the 10th century,
Spanish or Sephardic Jews influenced by Arab literature
and thought concentrated more on philosophical, scien-
tific, and linguistic studies. The Ashkenazi Jews of FRANCE
and GERMANYemphasized legal and exegetic studies.
PROFESSIONALIZATION IN WESTERN EUROPEFrom the 11th century a revival of learning in Europe led
to growing professionalization of knowledge. New schools
that developed at BOLOGNAand PARISfor the study of law
and theology became the basis for the autonomous insti-
tutions called universities. They were to function initially
as GUILDSof teachers or masters who granted degrees and
admitted candidates to the professions. This wide auton-
omy was not to last very long, but the roles and powers
of the masters endured within a more institutional frame-
work. The Universities of CAMBRIDGE and OXFORD in
ENGLANDoriginated in response to the same needs and
with the same initial organization. The balance of power
between the students and the teaching faculties could
and did change, and the students became better orga-
nized and gained greater control of the finances or
salaries of their teachers. The study of theology and phi-
losophy played a considerable role in the early curricula
along with the seven liberal arts, but subjects turned
much more vocational as students progressed to a degree
through the system; not everyone attained a degree, how-
ever, since that was really only necessary for the profes-
sion of teaching.
Universities sprouted all over Europe in the period
after 1200, with Paris as the model for the course of
study based on lecturing and disputation and institu-
tional organization. They played important roles in the
intellectual, political, and social life of Europe and Chris-
tendom. The idea of a community of masters licensed to
teach at the highest level, in other words, a university, is
one that we owe entirely to the Middle Ages.
See alsoHUMANISM; LANFRANC OFBEC; NOTARIES AND
THE NOTARIATE;SCHOLASTICISM AND THE SCHOLASTIC
METHOD.
Further reading:Robert Black, Humanism and Educa-
tion in Medieval and Renaissance Italy: Tradition and Inno-
vation in Latin Schools from the Twelfth to the Fifteenth
Century(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001);
Paul F. Grendler, The Universities of the Italian Renaissance
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002); Wil-
fred Madelung, Religious Schools and Sects in Medieval
Islam(London: Variorum, 1985); Nicholas Orme, English
Schools in the Middle Ages (London: Methuen, 1973);
Nicholas Orme, Education and Society in Medieval and
Renaissance England(London: Hambledon Press, 1989);
Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle
Ages,ed. F. M. Powicke and A. B. Emden, 3 vols. (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1936); Jacques Verger, “The Universi-
ties,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History.Vol. 6, c.
1300–c. 1415,ed. Michael Jones (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2000), 82–101.Urban II, Blessed(Odo of Châtillon, Oddone, Eudes,
Otto or Odo of Lagery)(ca. 1039–1099)French pope
who launched the First Crusade
Odo, later Urban was born about 1042 in Châtillon-sur-
Marne in a noble family of Champagne. After studying
with Saint BRUNOat RHEIMS, he entered the monastery of
CLUNYbetween 1067 and 1070, soon serving as its grand
prior between 1074 and 1079. He then became an ardent
supporter of the GREGORIANREFORMand was rewarded
by promotion to the rank of cardinal-bishop of Ostia by
Pope GREGORYVII.
At the death of Victor III (r. 1087), Gregory’s succes-
sor, on September 6, 1087, ROMEwas under the control
of an antipope. Six chaotic months elapsed before Odo
was finally elected pope as Urban II. He was consecrated
at Terracina, south of Rome, on March 12, 1088. Urban II
was more moderate but still strongly reaffirmed the posi-
tions of Gregory VII on SIMONY,NICOLAITISM, and lay
investiture. On the other hand, he was more conciliatory
about questionable ordinations during the INVESTITURE
CONTROVERSY. He did bring about legislation that forbade
the clergy to take feudal OATHSbinding them to any of
the LAITY. Aided by various political changes of allegiance