712 usury
persecutions of the emperors Maximian (r. 286–305) and
DIOCLETIAN. There also occurred a misreading of a text
specifying 11 virgin-martyrs which was probably cor-
rupted into 11,000 virgins. In this form the story became
part of the GOLDENLEGEND,one of the most popular col-
lections of stories about the saints of the Middle Ages.
According to the Golden Legend, Ursula was the
daughter of a British Christian king, betrothed for politi-
cal reasons to a pagan English prince, but obtained a
delay of three years during which she and her betrothed
went on a PILGRIMAGE. The couple sailed down the Rhine
River and then on to ROME, where they were received by
the pope and the prince was baptized. On their way
home, they arrived at Cologne, where the pilgrims were
all martyred by the HUNS. The Huns could have been in
Cologne in the midfifth century, but a pope mentioned in
the text is not recorded elsewhere.
CULTIn 1155 a large number of bones from a forgotten ceme-
tery were discovered at Cologne. These were interpreted
as RELICS of the princess and her companions. A cult
evolved in the Rhineland, the Low Countries, and
VENICE. Ursula became a patron saint of educational
institutions for girls. She and her martyrdom became the
subject of numerous paintings in Northern Europe and
the famous series created about 1490 by Vittore Carpac-
cio (ca. 1460–ca. 1525) in Venice. Her feast day, October
21, was suppressed in 1969.
Further reading:C. M. Kauffmann, The Legend of
Saint Ursula(London: H.M.S.O., 1964).
usury Usury initially referred to the charging of any
interest at all for any sort of loan. It did not have to be
excessive. The prohibition of usury was based on Scrip-
ture, which forbade the exploitation of those in desperate
need. Its prohibition was common to Christians, Mus-
lims, and JEWS. The prohibition was linked then with the
principles of JUSTICEand CHARITY. With the commercial
and business development of the 12th century, the legiti-
macy of loan contracts began to be based on and deter-
mined by what was given and what was received in
exchange. One could not licitly receive more. Usury
could occur when nothing was actually produced, added,
or transformed for example, in the process of investing in
enterprises. One was not to charge for the use of money
or of time, which actually belonged to GOD. Money was
not fruitful or fungible and was thus incapable of produc-
ing anything. It was at best only a medium of exchange.
One perhaps could collect it from enemies or maybe even
foreigners, the sin then would be avarice, that is, an
offense against justice, rather like theft.
Usurers were certainly endangering their salvation
and REDEMPTIONwhile risking graphic and unpleasant
punishments in the afterlife unless they returned any
gains to those from whom they had collected them.
Excommunicated and banned from Christian BURIAL
usurers could lose their ill-gotten gains to confiscations
by the state. The WILLSof the LAITYwere scrutinized for
repayments for usury in the later Middle Ages. Various
commercial devices and legalistic and moral arguments
were developed to handle covert charging of interest and
to justify certain ways of collecting interest. However, the
prohibition of usury remained a staple subject of sermons
throughout this period. In time the definitions and penal-
ties became more flexible. In the context of economic and
moral realities, profit, even certain gain, from business
activity was permitted or deemed marginally licit, espe-
cially if joint risk could be suggested. Nevertheless, one
could be called to the attention of the ecclesiastical and
secular authorities if perceived as too rapacious and
exploitative of other people or of those in genuine need.THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE, MUSLIMS, AND JEWS
In the BYZANTINEEMPIREusury was handled in much the
same way. JEWSwere sometimes allowed to practice it,Usurers suffer in hell, from Jean Gerson, Le Trésor de
Sapience,Ms. 146 (15th century), Musée Condé, Chantilly,
France (Giraudon / Art Resource)