716 Vallombrosa
were attacked by the sermons of Vincent FERRER. Their
persecution by the INQUISITION continued even after
many converted to Christianity. Valladolid remained an
important administrative center until the Spanish capital
was moved to MADRIDin the 16th century.
See alsoRECONQUEST.
Further reading:Albert Frederick Calvert, Valladolid,
Oviedo, Segovia, Zamora, Avila, and Zaragoza: An Histori-
cal and Descriptive Account(London: J. Lane, 1908).
Vallombrosa The Vallombrosan order of monks
was established in the 11th century by John Gualbert
(ca. 995–1073) as part of the GREGORIAN REFORM, under
the influence of CLUNY, and as part of the reform of
eremetical MONASTICISM. The Vallombrosans started out
as a community of hermits who, grouping together from
1036, committed themselves to communal or coenobic
living. The congregation began with the donation of the
mountainous territory of Vallombrosa in the Tuscan
Apennines about 20 miles east of FLORENCEat an altitude
of 3,000 feet. John Gualbert became prior in about 1040.
Its rule and organization were approved by Pope URBANII
in 1090. Life at Vallombrosa was that of a community
who alternated stays in the monastery and in individual
hermitages. The Vallombrosans observed the Benedictine
Rule but did no work outside the enclosure and remained
extreme centralized under a single abbot who was elected
for life. They employed lay brothers as workers, who also
fielded outside affairs. The order spread into the rest of
ITA LYand into FRANCE. By the mid-13th century, the con-
gregation had 79 abbeys, 29 priories, and nine monaster-
ies of NUNS.
Further reading: George W. Dameron, Episcopal
Power and Florentine Society, 1000–1320 (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).
Valois dynasty The Valois, named after the county of
Valois near PARIS, were the reigning dynasty in FRANCE
from 1328 to 1589, eventually divided into three lines in
- The first Valois, Philip VI (r. 1328–50), was the clos-
est male relation of the last direct CAPETIAN, Charles IV (r.
1322–28). The English king, EDWARDIII, was a more
direct descendant, but through the female line; he was
therefore excluded in succession by the Salic Law, which
did not allow succession through the female line. This
dynastic dispute became a main factor in the first phase of
the HUNDREDYEARS’WAR.CHARLESV and CHARLESVII
were successful Valois kings who presided over French
recoveries during the Hundred Years’ War. LOUISXI in the
second half of the 15th century contributed to the growth
and consolidation of the French state.
Despite temporary reverses and setbacks, the Valois
enlarged the royal domain by adding the great fiefs of
BRITTANYand the Bourbonnais in the 16th century as well
as principalities from the HOLY ROMANEMPIREsuch a
Dauphiné and PROVENCE. Their meddling in Italian
affairs led to the introduction of many of the ideas associ-
ated with the Italian RENAISSANCEto France. They were
the patrons of important artists such as Jean FOUQUET
and the LIMBOURGBROTHERS.
Further reading:Keith Cameron, ed., From Valois to
Bourbon: Dynasty, State and Society in Early Modern
France (Exeter: University of Exeter, 1989); Kenneth
Alan Fowler, The Age of Plantagenet and Valois: The Strug-
gle for Supremacy, 1328–1498(New York: Putnam, 1967);
P. S. Lewis, Later Medieval France: The Polity(New York:
St. Martin’s Press, 1968).Vandals The Vandals were a notoriously ruthless Ger-
manic tribe who founded a kingdom in northern AFRICA.
They seem to have originated in Scandinavia, probably
DENMARK, then moved to Silesia and modern eastern
POLAND. Driven toward the Western Empire by the HUNS,
they crossed through FRANCEand entered SPAINbetween
406 and 409. There one branch, the Silingis, were
attacked and almost totally wiped out in fighting with the
VISIGOTHSbetween 415 and 418. The remnants of the Sil-
ings united with another branch, the Hasdings.CONQUEST OF NORTH AFRICA
Their king GAISERIC led them, perhaps as many as
80,000, to North Africa in about 428. There they were
reluctantly accepted by the local Romans as allies. In 439
Gaiseric overthrew the Roman regime and established a
Vandal state with Carthage as its capital. This was recog-
nized by the Romans in a treaty in 442. The Vandals
expropriated land around Carthage but retained Roman
institutions in the rest of the country. They did not, how-
ever, mix with the local Catholic population and pre-
served their zealous ARIANbeliefs.
Gaiseric constructed a strong centralized state and
established an unquestioned succession for his son. The
Vandals developed a powerful fleet and controlled much
of the western Mediterranean Sea. From North Africa
they conquered the BALEARICISLANDS, SARDINIA, COR-
SICA, and parts of SICILY. They even sacked ROMEin 455,
linking their name with wanton destruction.FALL OF THE VANDALS
After Gaiseric’s death in 477, the Vandals abandoned wars
and piracy, which had been substantial sources of income.
Fierce persecutions of Catholics followed in around 484.
Their later kings were unable to control the Berber tribes,
who grew more and more aggressive in their raiding. King
Hilderic (r. 523–530) established peaceful relations with
the BYZANTINE EMPIRE and increased toleration for
Roman and Greek Christianity. His overthrow by Gelimer
(r. 530–533/534) in 530 became the pretext for a Byzan-
tine invasion of Africa in 533 by BELISARIUSwho easily
defeated the Vandal army and made most of the males