vestments, liturgical 721Arabic or Greek and other regional languages with vari-
ous histories spoken by the majority of the population.
Many people always had to speak Latin, Greek, or Arabic
in their daily life. Everywhere there were local dialects
with some similarities to one another but often mutually
incomprehensible. Urban dialects differed from rural
ones, and other variations were attributable to social class
and degree of literacy in any particular region.
In Anglo-Saxon ENGLAND and the Scandinavian
countries, Germanic vernaculars early on produced rich
literatures. In Western Europe after 1300, literature in
languages other than Latin became more respected and
acceptable. Latin, Greek, and Arabic retained their impor-
tance as languages of culture and religion. In Slavic and
Germanic regions, languages evolved out of spoken forms
for specialized use in religion, culture, and governmental
administration. All became more standardized in vocabu-
lary, syntax, and grammar.
See also ALIGHIERI, DANTE; ANGLO-SAXONS; ICE-
LAND ANDICELANDIC LITERATURE;LATIN LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE.
Further reading:Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski, Dun-
can Robertson, and Nancy Bradley Warren, eds., The Ver-
nacular Spirit: Essays on Medieval Religious Literature
(New York: Palgrave, 2002); Nicholas Brooks, ed., Latin
and the Vernacular Languages in Early Medieval Britain
(Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1982); A. J. Min-
nis, ed., Latin and Vernacular: Studies in Late-Medieval
Texts and Manuscripts(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1989);
Colin C. Smith, “The Vernacular,” in The New Cambridge
Medieval History.Vol. 5, c. 1198–c. 1300,ed. David Abu-
lafia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999),
71–83; Philippe Wolff, Western Languages, A.D.
100–1500,trans. Frances Partridge (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1971).
Verona A city on the Adige River in northern ITALY,
medieval Verona was at the crossroads of routes between
the Po Valley, the Alps, and Eastern Europe. It was an
important town under the Roman Empire and for the
OSTROGOTHS. In the Lombard era between 569 and 774,
the ARIANISMof the town was suppressed, and under the
Carolingians the Benedictine monasteries of San Zeno
and Santa Maria in Organo were established. Verona
became a center of power for the German emperors and
remained a supporter of imperial policies. By the end of
the 11th century, the economy and population contin-
ued to benefit from the town’s strategic commercial
location and the growth of the textile industry. Its popu-
lation grew to around 35,000 to 40,000 in the early 14th
century.
A COMMUNEwas formed in 1136. Though opposed to
FREDERICKI BARBAROSSAit was supportive of FREDERICK
II. By the 13th century, the city was dominated by tyrants
such as Ezzelino III da Romano (1194–1259). A Ghi-
belline and antipapal policy prevailed under the lordship
of the Della Scala and the Scaligeri between 1277 and- After the fall of the Della Scala, who had built
impressive monuments to themselves, Verona was domi-
nated by the VISCONTIof MILANbetween 1387 and 1404.
It finally was taken over by the republic of VENICEin
Further reading: Rather of Verona, The Complete
Works of Rather of Verona,trans. and ed. Peter L. D. Reid
(Binghamton, N.Y.: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and
Studies, 1991); Rolandino Potavino, The Chronicles of the
Trevisan March,trans. Joseph R. Berrigan (Lawrence, Kan.
Coronado, 1980); A. M. Allen, A History of Verona,ed.
Edward Armstrong (London: Methuen, 1910); Maureen
C. Miller, The Formation of a Medieval Church: Ecclesiasti-
cal Change in Verona, 950–1150 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press, 1993); Alethea Wiel, The Story of Verona
(1902; reprint, Nendeln: Kraus Reprint, 1971).
vespers Vespers was an evening service at sundown
performed by both the Eastern and Western Churches. It
was one of the oldest and most important parts of the
DIVINEOFFICE. The name was derived from the Latin
word for the last hours of the day. It began as a Jewish
and early Christian blessing of the lamps lighted as
evening began. In earlier terms, it referred to the sacrifice
of the burning of incense every evening in the temple.
Christianity changed this evening sacrifice into a hymn of
praise in memory of the Passion of Christ and the Last
Supper. A distinctly Christian form of evening prayer
evolved in the third century. In the Middle Ages it con-
sisted of an introduction, five psalms, a short reading
from Scripture, a hymn, the end of the Magnificat,
prayers for various purposes, a homily, and concluding
verses. By the sixth century, from the inception of the
Benedictine Rule, vespers had acquired a customary and
basic form, which was followed during the rest of the
Middle Ages.
Further reading:Paul F. Bradshaw, Daily Prayer in
the Early Church: A Study of the Origin and Early Develop-
ment of the Divine Office (London: Published for the
Alcuin Club by SPCK, 1981); Robert F. Taft, The Liturgy
of the Hours in East and West: The Origins of the Divine
Office and Its Meaning for Today (Collegeville, Minn.:
Liturgical Press, 1986).Vespers, Sicilian SeeSICILIANVESPERS.vestments, liturgical In the Middle Ages liturgical
vestments were the distinctive dress worn by the CLERGY
when performing the services of the church. This dress
derived from the ordinary secular costume of the world
of the late Roman Empire. Between the fourth and the
ninth centuries, a specific priestly costume for sacred